Fundamentals of MicroelectronicsPDF电子书下载

1 INTRODUCTION TO MICROELECTRONICS 1

1.1 Electronics versus Microelectronics 1

1.2 Examples of Electronic Systems 2

1.2.1 Cellular Telephone 2

1.2.2 Digital Camera 5

1.2.3 Analog Versus Digital 7

1.3 Basic Concepts 8

1.3.1 Analog and Digital Signals 8

1.3.2 Analog Circuits 10

1.3.3 Digital Circuits 11

1.3.4 Basic Circuit Theorems 13

1.4 Chapter Summary 20

2 BASIC PHYSICS OF SEMICONDUCTORS 21

2.1 Semiconductor Materials and Their Properties 22

2.1.1 Charge Carriers in Solids 22

2.1.2 Modification of Carrier Densities 25

2.1.3 Transport of Carriers 28

2.2 pn Junction 36

2.2.1 pn Junction in Equilibrium 37

2.2.2 pn Junction Under Reverse Bias 42

2.2.3 pn Junction Under Forward Bias 46

2.2.4 I/V Characteristics 49

2.3 Reverse Breakdown 54

2.3.1 Zener Breakdown 54

2.3.2 Avalanche Breakdown 55

2.4 Chapter Summary 55

Problems 56

SPICE Problems 60

3 DIODE MODELS AND CIRCUITS 62

3.1 Ideal Diode 62

3.1.1 Initial Thoughts 62

3.1.2 Ideal Diode 64

3.1.3 Application Examples 68

3.2 pn Junction as a Diode 73

3.3 Additional Examples 75

3.4 Large-Signal and Small-Signal Operation 80

3.5 Applications of Diodes 89

3.5.1 Half-Wave and Full-Wave Rectifiers 89

3.5.2 Voltage Regulation 102

3.5.3 Limiting Circuits 104

3.5.4 Voltage Doublers 108

3.5.5 Diodes as Level Shifters and Switches 112

3.6 Chapter Summary 115

Problems 116

SPICE Problems 126

4 PHYSICS OF BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS 128

4.1 General Considerations 128

4.2 Structure of Bipolar Transistor 130

4.3 Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Active Mode 131

4.3.1 Collector Current 134

4.3.2 Base and Emitter Currents 137

4.4 Bipolar Transistor Models and Characteristics 139

4.4.1 Large-Signal Model 139

4.4.2 I/V Characteristics 141

4.4.3 Concept of Transconductance 143

4.4.4 Small-Signal Model 145

4.4.5 Early Effect 150

4.5 Operation of Bipolar Transistor in Saturation Mode 156

4.6 The PNP Transistor 159

4.6.1 Structure and Operation 160

4.6.2 Large-Signal Model 160

4.6.3 Small-Signal Model 163

4.7 Chapter Summary 167

Problems 167

SPICE Problems 178

5 BIPOLAR AMPLIFIERS 181

5.1 General Considerations 181

5.1.1 Input and Output Impedances 182

5.1.2 Biasing 186

5.1.3 DC and Small-Signal Analysis 186

5.2 Operating Point Analysis and Design 188

5.2.1 Simple Biasing 189

5.2.2 Resistive Divider Biasing 192

5.2.3 Biasing with Emitter Degeneration 195

5.2.4 Self-Biased Stage 199

5.2.5 Biasing of PNP Transistors 202

5.3 Bipolar Amplifier Topologies 206

5.3.1 Common-Emitter Topology 207

5.3.2 Common-Base Topology 233

5.3.3 Emitter Follower 250

5.4 Summary and Additional Examples 258

5.5 Chapter Summary 264

Problems 264

SPICE Problems 285

6 PHYSICS F MOS TRANSISTORS 288

6.1 Structure of MOSFET 288

6.2 Operation of MOSFET 291

6.2.1 Qualitative Analysis 291

6.2.2 Derivation of I/V Characteristics 297

6.2.3 Channel-Length Modulation 306

6.2.4 MOS Transconductance 308

6.2.5 Velocity Saturation 310

6.2.6 Other Second-Order Effects 310

6.3 MOS Device Models 311

6.3.1 Large-Signal Model 311

6.3.2 Small-Signal Model 313

6.4 PMOS Transistor 314

6.5 CMOS Technology 316

6.6 Comparison of Bipolar and MOS Devices 317

6.7 Chapter Summary 317

Problems 318

SPICE Problems 327

7 CMOS AMPLIFIERS 329

7.1 General Considerations 329

7.1.1 MOS Amplifier Topologies 329

7.1.2 Biasing 329

7.1.3 Realization of Current Sources 333

7.2 Common-Source Stage 334

7.2.1 CS Core 334

7.2.2 CS Stage With Current-Source Load 337

7.2.3 CS Stage With Diode-Connected Load 338

7.2.4 CS Stage With Degeneration 340

7.2.5 CS Core With Biasing 343

7.3 Common-Gate Stage 345

7.3.1 CG Stage With Biasing 350

7.4 Source Follower 351

7.4.1 Source Follower Core 352

7.4.2 Source Follower With Biasing 354

7.5 Summary and Additional Examples 356

7.6 Chapter Summary 360

Problems 360

SPICE Problems 378

8 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER AS A BLACK BOX 380

8.1 General Considerations 381

8.2 Op-Amp-Based Circuits 383

8.2.1 Noninverting Amplifier 383

8.2.2 Inverting Amplifier 385

8.2.3 Integrator and Differentiator 388

8.2.4 Voltage Adder 395

8.3 Nonlinear Functions 396

8.3.1 Precision Rectifier 396

8.3.2 Logarithmic Amplifier 397

8.3.3 Square-Root Amplifier 398

8.4 Op Amp Nonidealities 399

8.4.1 DC Offsets 399

8.4.2 Input Bias Current 402

8.4.3 Speed Limitations 405

8.4.4 Finite Input and Output Impedances 410

8.5 Design Examples 411

8.6 Chapter Summary 413

Problems 414

SPICE Problems 423

9 CASCODE STAGES AND CURRENT MIRRORS 425

9.1 Cascode Stage 425

9.1.1 Cascode as a Current Source 425

9.1.2 Cascode as an Amplifier 432

9.2 Current Mirrors 441

9.2.1 Initial Thoughts 441

9.2.2 Bipolar Current Mirror 442

9.2.3 MOS Current Mirror 451

9.3 Chapter Summary 454

Problems 455

SPICE Problems 470

10 DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS 473

10.1 General Considerations 473

10.1.1 Initial Thoughts 473

10.1.2 Differential Signals 475

10.1.3 Differential Pair 478

10.2 Bipolar Differential Pair 479

10.2.1 Qualitative Analysis 479

10.2.2 Large-Signal Analysis 484

10.2.3 Small-Signal Analysis 488

10.3 MOS Differential Pair 494

10.3.1 Qualitative Analysis 495

10.3.2 Large-Signal Analysis 499

10.3.3 Small-Signal Analysis 503

10.4 Cascode Differential Amplifiers 507

10.5 Common-Mode Rejection 511

10.6 Differential Pair with Active Load 515

10.6.1 Qualitative Analysis 516

10.6.2 Quantitative Analysis 518

10.7 Chapter Summary 523

Problems 524

SPICE Problems 541

11 FREQUENCY RESPONSE 544

11.1 Fundamental Concepts 544

11.1.1 General Considerations 544

11.1.2 Relationship Between Transfer Function and Frequency Response 547

11.1.3 Bode’s Rules 550

11.1.4 Association of Poles with Nodes 551

11.1.5 Miller’s Theorem 553

11.1.6 General Frequency Response 556

11.2 High-Frequency Models of Transistors 559

11.2.1 High-Frequency Model of Bipolar Transistor 559

11.2.2 High-Frequency Model of MOSFET 561

11.2.3 Transit Frequency 563

11.3 Analysis Procedure 564

11.4 Frequency Response of CE and CS Stages 565

11.4.1 Low-Frequency Response 565

11.4.2 High-Frequency Response 566

11.4.3 Use of Miller’s Theorem 566

11.4.4 Direct Analysis 569

11.4.5 Input Impedance 572

11.5 Frequency Response of CB and CG Stages 573

11.5.1 Low-Frequency Response 573

11.5.2 High-Frequency Response 574

11.6 Frequency Response of Followers 576

11.6.1 Input and Output Impedances 580

11.7 Frequency Response of Cascode Stage 583

11.7.1 Input and Output Impedances 587

11.8 Frequency Response of Differential Pairs 588

11.8.1 Common-Mode Frequency Response 590

11.9 Additional Examples 591

11.10 Chapter Summary 595

Problems 596

SPICE Problems 607

12 FEEDBACK 610

12.1 General Considerations 610

12.1.1 Loop Gain 613

12.2 Properties of Negative Feedback 614

12.2.1 Gain Desensitization 614

12.2.2 Bandwidth Extension 616

12.2.3 Modification of I/O Impedances 618

12.2.4 Linearity Improvement 622

12.3 Types of Amplifiers 622

12.3.1 Simple Amplifier Models 623

12.3.2 Examples of Amplifier Types 624

12.4 Sense and Return Techniques 626

12.5 Polarity of Feedback 629

12.6 Feedback Topologies 631

12.6.1 Voltage-Voltage Feedback 631

12.6.2 Voltage-Current Feedback 636

12.6.3 Current-Voltage Feedback 639

12.6.4 Current-Current Feedback 644

12.7 Effect of Nonideal I/O Impedances 647

12.7.1 Inclusion of I/O Effects 648

12.8 Stability in Feedback Systems 660

12.8.1 Review of Bode’s Rules 660

12.8.2 Problem of Instability 662

12.8.3 Stability Condition 665

12.8.4 Phase Margin 668

12.8.5 Frequency Compensation 670

12.8.6 Miller Compensation 673

12.9 Chapter Summary 674

Problems 675

SPICE Problems 691

13 OUTPUT STAGES AND POWER AMPLIFIERS 694

13.1 General Considerations 694

13.2 Emitter Follower as Power Amplifier 695

13.3 Push-Pull Stage 698

13.4 Improved Push-Pull Stage 701

13.4.1 Reduction of Crossover Distortion 701

13.4.2 Addition of CE Stage 705

13.5 Large-Signal Considerations 708

13.5.1 Biasing Issues 708

13.5.2 Omission of PNP Power Transistor 709

13.5.3 High-Fidelity Design 712

13.6 Short-Circuit Protection 713

13.7 Heat Dissipation 713

13.7.1 Emitter Follower Power Rating 714

13.7.2 Push-Pull Stage Power Rating 715

13.7.3 Thermal Runaway 716

13.8 Efficiency 718

13.8.1 Efficiency of Emitter Follower 718

13.8.2 Efficiency of Push-Pull Stage 719

13.9 Power Amplifier Classes 720

13.10 Chapter Summary 721

Problems 722

SPICE Problems 728

14 ANALOG FILTERS 731

14.1 General Considerations 731

14.1.1 Filter Characteristics 732

14.1.2 Classification of Filters 733

14.1.3 Filter Transfer Function 737

14.1.4 Problem of Sensitivity 740

14.2 First-Order Filters 741

14.3 Second-Order Filters 744

14.3.1 Special Cases 744

14.3.2 RLC Realizations 748

14.4 Active Filters 753

14.4.1 Sallen and Key Filter 753

14.4.2 Integrator-Based Biquads 758

14.4.3 Biquads Using Simulated Inductors 762

14.5 Approximation of Filter Response 768

14.5.1 Butterworth Response 768

14.5.2 Chebyshev Response 772

14.6 Chapter Summary 777

Problems 778

SPICE Problems 784

15 DIGITAL CMOS CIRCUITS 786

15.1 General Considerations 786

15.1.1 Static Characterization of Gates 787

15.1.2 Dynamic Characterization of Gates 794

15.1.3 Power-Speed Trade-Off 797

15.2 CMOS Inverter 799

15.2.1 Initial Thoughts 799

15.2.2 Voltage Transfer Characteristic 801

15.2.3 Dynamic Characteristics 807

15.2.4 Power Dissipation 812

15.3 CMOS NOR and NAND Gates 816

15.3.1 NOR Gate 816

15.3.2 NAND Gate 819

15.4 Chapter Summary 820

Problems 821

SPICE Problems 827

16 CMOS AMPLIFIERS 829

16.1 General Considerations 829

16.1.1 Input and Output Impedances 830

16.1.2 Biasing 834

16.1.3 DC and Small-Signal Analysis 835

16.2 Operating Point Analysis and Design 836

16.2.1 Simple Biasing 838

16.2.2 Biasing with Source Degeneration 840

16.2.3 Self-Biased Stage 843

16.2.4 Biasing of PMOS Transistors 844

16.2.5 Realization of Current Sources 845

16.3 CMOS Amplifier Topologies 846

16.4 Common-Source Topology 847

16.4.1 CS Stage with Current-Source Load 852

16.4.2 CS Stage with Diode-Connected Load 853

16.4.3 CS Stage with Source Degeneration 854

16.4.4 Common-Gate Topology 866

16.4.5 Source Follower 877

16.5 Additional Examples 883

16.6 Chapter Summary 887

Problems 888

SPICE Problems 906

Appendix A INTRODUCTION TO SPICE 909

Index 928