Europe in The Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries 1789-1950PDF电子书下载

PART Ⅰ THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND NAPOLEON 1

CHAPTER Ⅰ MODERN EUROPE 1

Unity of European civilisation 1

The State system of Europe，Balance of Power 2

France at the end of the eighteenth century 3

The House of Austria 5

The States of Germany 7

Russia 8

The first partition of Poland(1772) 9

The French Philosophers－Voltaire，Montesquieu，Rousseau 10

The Physiocrats 12

CHAPTER Ⅱ THE FRENCH REVOLUTION IN PEACE 13

Louis XVI 13

Turgot 14

Necker 15

Financial chaos 16

Calonne，The States-General 17

The National Assembly，Siéyès 19

The King＇s surrender，The three forces，Court，Assembly，People 20

Fall of the Bastille(14 July 1789) 21

The‘Bread＇march on Versailles(October 5-6) 22

The‘Emigration，＇The‘Rights of Man＇(August) 23

The Constitutional Debates 25

The Constitution of 1791 25

Ecclesiastical legislation 26

The flight to Varennes 28

Massacre of the Champ de Mars(17 July 1791) 29

CHAPTER Ⅲ THE REVOLUTION AT WAR 29

Parties in the Legislative Assembly 29

Origins of the War 30

The Polish Question 32

France and the Empire，Convention of Pillnitz(27 August 1791) 33

The Girondist Ministry and War(20 April 1792) 34

20 June 1792 in Paris 35

The rise of the Jacobins，The Fall of Monarchy(10 August 1792) 36

The‘September Massacres，＇ 38

Battle of Valmy(20 September 1792)，Execution of Louis XVI(21 January 1793) 39

European coalition against France 40

Defeat and treason of Dumouriez，The War in La Vendée 41

The Committee of Public Safety 42

Fall of the Girondists 43

Danton and Robespierre 44

The Revolutionary Tribunal 45

The Vendean War 46

Carnot and the new Warfare 47

The Second Partition of Poland(1793)，French Victories 48

Divisions in the Jacobin party，The Commune 49

The Reforms of 1793 50

Fall of Hébertists and Dantonists 51

Fall and Execution of Danton 52

Law of Prairial(10 June 1794)，Robespierre＇s speech in the Convention(26 July 1794) 53

His arrest and death(28 July) 54

The end of the Terror，the Risings of Germinal and Prairial，1795 55

The Constitution of the Year Three 56

The Rising of Vendémiaire(October 1795)，Quiberon Bay(1795) 57

Third Partition of Poland(1795)，Peace of Basel between Prussia and France(5 April 1795) 58

CHAPTER Ⅳ THE RISE OF NAPOLEON TO POWER 59

Napoleon＇s early career 60

Italy in 1796 61

Napoleon＇s methods 62

French victories at Lodi and Rivoli 63

Peace of Campo Formio(17 Octobe 1797) 64

Napoleon＇s settlement of Italy 65

The Direc-tory 66

The Coup d＇état of Fructidor 67

French Expedition to Egypt，The Battle of the Pyramids(21 July 1798)，and of the Nile(1 August 1798) 68

Italy and Holland(1798) 69

Switzerland and Naples 70

Russia enters the War(December 1798) 71

French defeats(1799) 72

The Directory and Napoleon 73

The Revolution of Brumaire(9-11 November 1799) 74

The Consulate 75

CHAPTER Ⅴ NAPOLEON，EMPEROR AND STATESMAN 76

Austria and Great Britain continue the War 76

Battles of Marengo(14 June 1800)and Hohenlinden(2 December 1800)，Peace of Luné-ville(9 February 1801) 77

The Peace of Amiens(27 March 1802) 78

Results of the Peace of Amiens 79

Germany of in confusion，The Congress of Rasttat(December 1797) 80

The first Napoleonic settle-ment of Germany 81

Napoleon as First Consul 82

Napoleon，Emperor of the French(18 May 1804) 84

The Concordat 85

The Code Napoléon 86

France under Napoleon 89

CHAPTER Ⅵ THE DEFEAT OF THE GOVERNMENTS OF EUROPE 92

The Balance of Power 92

The Cisalpine Republic 93

San Domingo and India 94

Malta and the rupture with England 95

The Grand Alliance 96

Battle of Trafalgar(21 October 1805) 98

Napoleon and Prussia 99

Ulm and Austerlitz 100

The Confederation of the Rhine(1806) 101

End of the Holy Roman Empire(6 August 1806) 102

Jena(14 October 1806)and Eylau(February 1807) 103

The Treaty of Tilsit(7 July 1807) 104

The zenith of Napoleon＇s power 105

CHAPTER Ⅶ THE RISE OF THE NEW EUROPE 105

The Berlin Decrees 106

The‘Continental System＇ 107

French annexation of Holland 108

The revival of Prussia 109

Napoleon＇s War against Spain 112

The Erfurt Conference 117

Austria renews War(1809) 118

Signs of the future 119

CHAPTER Ⅷ THE CATASTROPHE OF NAPOLEON 119

Sweden and Bernadotte 120

Austria，Russia and Napoleon 121

The‘Grand Army＇invades Russia(June 1812) 122

The Retreat from Moscow 123

The national rising in Prussia 124

Metternich＇s peace proposals 125

The Battles of Dresden(August 1813)and Leipzig(October 1813) 126

The invasion of France(1814) 127

Napoleon abdicates(6 April 1814) 128

The return of the Bourbons 129

The‘Hundred Days＇ 130

Waterloo(18 June 1815) 131

PART Ⅱ FROM INTERNATIONAL GOVERNMENT TO REVOLUTION 1814-48 133

CHAPTER Ⅸ THE FAILURE OF INTERNATIONAL GOVERNMENT(1814-25) 133

Treaty of Chaumont(9 March 1814) 134

1st Treaty of Paris(30 May 1814) 135

2nd Treaty of Paris(20 November 1815) 136

Treaty of Vienna(9 June 1815) 137

Holy Alliance(26 September 1815)and Quadruple Alliance(20 November 1815) 139

The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle(1818) 140

Castlereagh＇s declaration of British policy(5 May 1820) 141

The Congress of Troppau(1820) 142

Canning，The Congress of Verona(1822) 143

Failure of the Congress system 144

CHAPTER Ⅹ AUTOCRACY，CONSTITUTIONALISM AND REVOLUTION(1815-48) 145

The Germanic Federation，The Carlsbad Decrees(1819) 145

Reform in Prussia 146

The Zollverein 147

Frederick William IV，France under the restored Bourbons 149

Louis Philippe and the Orleanist Monarchy 151

The Belgian revolt 152

Palmerston and Belgium，Spain and Portugal 154

Weakness of the Orleans Monarchy 156

Revolution in France(February 1848) 157

Revolution in Poland 158

Italy－attempts at revolt 159

General tendencies in the period 162

PART Ⅲ FRENCH，GERMAN AND RUSSIAN IMPERIALISM 165

CHAPTER Ⅺ THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1848 AND THE ESTABLISH-MENT OF THE EMPIRE 165

Paris and the Revolution 165

Saint-Simon 166

Louis-Blanc 167

Socialist revolt 168

Louis Napoleon 169

Work as President 170

Coup d＇état(2 December 1851) 172

The Second Empire 173

CHAPTER Ⅻ THE REVOLUTION OF 1848-49 IN GERMANY，IN THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE AND IN HUNGARY 176

Different forms assumed by the Revolution 176

Germany 178

Austria，Hungary and Prussia 179

The National German Assembly 180

Windischgratz suppresses Czech revolution in Prague，Jellacic，Ban of Croatia，attacks Hungary 181

Failure of Revolution in Austria，Suppression of Liberalism in Prussia 182

Hungary，Kossuth and Gorgei，The re-conquest of Budapest 183

Russian intervention 184

Hungary＇s surrender，Kossuth＇s flight 185

CHAPTER ⅩⅢ REACTION IN GERMANY，AUSTRIA AND HUNGARY 186

The National Assembly of Germany offers the crown to Frederick William of Prussia，His refusal(3 April 1849)and the end of the Assembly(September 1849) 187

Austria humiliates Prussia at Olmütz(28 November 1850) 188

Reactionary policy in Austria 189

Permanent results of the Revolutions 190

CHAPTER ⅪⅤ REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS IN ITALY 191

Pius IX，the Liberal Pope 192

Pius grants a Constitution(March 1848) 194

Rebellion in Sicily，and grant of a constitution(February 1848)，and in Tuscany，(February 1848) 195

Charles-Albert，King of Sardinia 196

Success of anti-Austrian rising in Milan(23 March 1848)，Charles-Albert declares for a United Italy 197

Italian defeat at Custozza，(25 July) 198

Disorders and constitutions suppressed in Naples，Tuscany 199

Defeat of Charles-Albert at Novara(23 March 1849)，Victor Emmanuel maintains the Constitution of Piedmont 200

Garibaldi and Mazzini surrender Rome(30 June 1849，)Manin surrenders Venice(24 August 1849) 201

CHAPTER ⅩⅤ THE EASTERN QUESTION AND THE CRIMEAN WAR 202

Section Ⅰ－The Near Eastern Question，1804-53 202

The Turks，the Great Powers and the Balkan peoples 202

The Serb revolt(1804)，The Greek revolt(1820) 203

The Battle of Navarino(August 1827)，Russo-Turkish War(1828-29)，The Treaty of Adrianople(14 September 1829) 204

Independence of Greece(1832)，Russian policy(1829-40) 205

Mehemet Ali attacks Turkey 206

Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi(8 July 1833)，The Turks attack Mehemet Ali(June 1839) 207

Palmerston＇s Convention of London(15 July 1840) 208

Mehemet Ali submits(25 November 1840)，The Straits Convention(13 July 1841) 209

Section Ⅱ－The Crimean War 210

The growing weakness of Turkey 210

Russia＇s religious claims，The Czar＇s proposals(January 1853) 212

The Holy Places，Lord Stratford de Redcliffe 213

Russia in the Principalities，Turkey declares war on Russia(4 October 1853) 214

France and Britain declare war(27 March 1854)，The Four Points 215

The Siege of Sebastopol(Septem-ber 1854-September 1855) 216

The Vienna Conference(March-May 1855) 217

The Fall of Sebastopol 218

The Congress and Peace Treaty of Paris(30 March 1856)，Declaration on Maritime Law 219

Failure of Turkey to reform 220

Changes in the Balkans－Greece，Serbia，Montenegro and Rumania 220

CHAPTER ⅩⅥ THE RISORGIMENTO AND THE UNION OF ITALY 224

Nationality in Italy 224

Mazzini 226

Piedmont and the rise of Cavour 227

Cavour at the Congress of Paris 228

Cavour and Napoleon III 229

Austria attacks Piedmont(April 1859) 230

Napoleon III invades Italy 231

Battles of Magenta(4 June)and Solferino(24 June) 232

The Preliminaries of Villafranca(11 July) 233

Italian movements towards unity，French annexation of Nice and Savoy 234

Naples 235

Garibaldi 236

His conquest of Sicily(May 1860)，He enters Naples(7 September) 237

The Kingdom of Italy 238

CHAPTER ⅩⅦ THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE 239

Difficulties of Napoleon III 239

The Opposition 240

The Mexican adventure(1862-67) 241

The Parliamentary situation，Thiers and Ollivier 243

Military position of France 244

The Liberal Empire 245

The Roman Question 246

CHAPTER ⅩⅧ GERMANY TO THE SEVEN WEEKS＇WAR(1848-66) 246

Austria：The October Diploma(1860) 247

Prussia：Zollverein，King William I 247

Roon and Bismarck 249

Bismarck＇s early career 250

The Frankfort Conference，The Polish Insurrection(1863) 251

The Schleswig-Holstein Question 252

Austria and Prussia attack Den-mark 253

The Treaty of Vienna(30 October 1864) 254

Bismarck and Italy(1865) 255

Austro-Prussian friction 256

Bismarck and Napoleon III，The Frankfort Diet(June 1866) 257

CHAPTER ⅩⅨ THE DEFEAT OF AUSTRIA AND THE COMING OF THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR 258

Moltke and the Prussian Army 258

Austrians defeated at Sadowa(3 July 1866)，Italians defeated at Custozza(24 July) 260

The Treaty of Prague(23 August 1866) 261

Napoleon III＇s demands on the Rhine，Belgium and Luxemburg 262

The North German Confederation 264

Francis Joseph and Hungary 265

The Ausgleich(1867) 266

Spain under two Queens 267

The Hohenzollern candidature for the Spanish Crown 269

French policy，Bismarck and the Ems Telegram 270

CHAPTER ⅩⅩ THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR AND ITS EFFECTS 271

Moltke 271

French disasters(August 1870) 272

Sedan(1 September)，collapse of the Empire 273

Siege of Paris(30 September 1870-28 January 1871) 274

Gambetta＇s resistance，Bazaine surrenders Metz(27 October 1870) 275

Fall of Paris and armistice(28 January 1871) 276

Russia and the Black Sea clauses 277

The German Empire pro-claimed(18 January 1871) 278

The new German Constitution(1873) 279

The French Assembly at Versailles 280

The Treaty of Frankfort(10 May 1871) 281

CHAPTER ⅩⅪ THE FOUNDATION OF THE THIRD FRENCH REPUBLIC 281

The Commune 282

Thiers 283

Defeat of the Communards 284

The German indemnity paid 285

The Monarchists overthrow Thiers 286

The new French Constitution 287

Grévy succeeds MacMahon 289

The Boulangist movement 291

PART Ⅳ THE GREAT ALLIANCES AND THE BALANCE OF POWER 293

CHAPTER ⅩⅫ RUSSIA AND THE EASTERN QUESTION，1856-86 293

Lines of expansion for European Powers 293

Russia under Alexander II 294

Polish revolt(1863) 295

Pan-Slavism，Jan Kollár，Safarik 296

Pan-Slav Exhibition at St．Petersburg(1867) 297

Revolt in Bosnia，The Bulgarian Atrocities 298

Disraeli and Gladstone 299

The Constantinople Conference 300

The Russo-Turkish War(April 1877-March 1878)，The Treaty of San Stefano 301

Terms of the Treaty of San Stefano，The Balkan States－Bosnia，Herzegovina，Serbia，Montenegro and Bulgaria 302

Salisbury＇s Circular(1 April 1878)，Disraeli and Cyprus 303

The Congress of Berlin(13 June-13 July 1878) 304

Results of the Treaty of Berlin－reform in Asiatic Turkey，Armenia，Batum 305

Russia and Bulgaria 306

Union of the two Bulgarias，Significance of the Congress of Berlin 307

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅢ THE GROWTH OF COLONISATION，OF TRADE，AND OF OVERSEAS EMPIRE，1815-92 308

Different forms of colonisation 308

British expansion 309

The French occupy Algiers 310

French Colonial policy 311

The French in North Africa 312

The Suez Canal，China 313

Russia in the Caucasus 314

Russia and Turkestan 315

Anglo-Russian rivalry in Central Asia，Russia is diverted to China 316

French occupation of Tunis(1881)，Anglo-French control in Egypt 317

German colonial enterprise，The Congo，The Conference of Berlin(October 1884-February 1885) 320

Results of Colonial development 321

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅣ BISMARCK AND THE FORMATION OF THE TRIPLE AND DUAL ALLIANCES，1879-94 322

Bismarck＇s system 322

The Dreikaiserbund(1871-3)，The Austro-German Treaty(7 October 1879) 323

The Dreikaiserbund Treaty(18 June 1881) 324

Triple Alliance Treaty(20 May 1882) 325

The‘Re-insurance Treaty＇(18 June 1887) 326

The Bulgarian imbroglio 327

Bismarck＇s policy，his fall(1890) 328

The formation of the Dual Alliance(1891-93) 329

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅤ THE ANGLO-JAPANESE ALLIANCE AND THE FRANCO-BRITISH ENTENTE，1895-1905 330

The Sino-Japanese War，Attitude of the Powers，The Kruger Telegram， 330

Germany seizes Kiao-Chau(November 1897)，The Other Powers seek compensation 331

Britain approaches Germany(1898)，Fashoda(1898) 332

1st Hague Peace Conference(May-July 1899)，The Boer War(October 1899) 333

Peace between England and Boers(May 1902)，Anglo-German Agreement on China(16 October 1900)Anglo-German negotiations 334

The Anglo-Japanese Alliance(30 January 1902) 335

The Venezuelan incident(1902)，The isolation of Germany 336

Janpan declares war on Russia(February 1904)，The Anglo-French Agreements signed(8 April 1904) 337

The secret clauses of the Entente，Germany and the Entente 338

Morocco，the Kaiser at Tangier(31 March 1905) 339

End of the Russo-Japanese war(5 September 1905)，Renewal of Anglo-Japanese Alliance(12 August 1905，Relations of the Powers in 1905 340

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅥ THE STATES OF EUROPE BEFORE THE CATASTROPHE 341

The States of Europe in 1906 341

The‘Encirclement＇policy，Ententes and Alliances 342

Public opinion in Britain 343

Instability of France 344

Franco-German relations 345

Reaction and Revolution in Russia 345

Russian policy in the Near and Middle East，Italy＇s moderate policy 347

Italy and the Central Powers，Germany－the Kaiser， 348

The German Kaiser and his Ministers 349

The Baghdad Railway and the German Naval Programme 350

Austria-Hungary－racial problems 351

Germany＇s blank cheque 353

Sum-mary 354

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅦ THE THREE CRISES－ALGECIRAS－BOSNIA－AGADIR－1906-11 354

The Algeciras Conference(1906) 355

Anglo-French naval and military conversations 356

The Treaty of Bjorko(25 July 1905) 357

The Anglo-Russian Agreements(31 August 1907) 358

The Powers and the Balkans 359

The‘Young Turk＇Revolution 360

The crises in Bulgaria and Bosnia(1908) 361

The Powers and the Austrian annexa-tion of Bosnia 362

Resentment of Serbia 363

Humiliation of Russia 364

Results of the Balkan Crisis 365

The Second Hague Peace Con-ference(June-October 1907) 366

Anglo-German naval rivalry 367

Anglo-German negotiations(1909-11) 368

France and Germany in Morocco 369

The Panther at Agadir 370

Lloyd George＇s Mansion House speech(21 July 1911)Results of Agadir 371

Italy and Tripoli 372

The Haldane Mission，The Neutrality formula 373

The Grey-Cambon letters(22 November 1912) 374

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅧ FROM THE BALKAN LEAGUE TO THE WAR OF 1914 375

Genesis of the Balkan Wars 375

The Balkan League(1911-12)，Sazonov and the outbreak of War(8 October 1912) 376

Turkish defeats，The Armistics(3 December 1912) 377

Further victories of the Balkan League(March 1913) 378

Albania，the Treaty of London(30 May 1913)，Bulgaria attacks Serbia，The Treaty of Bucharest(10 August 1913) 379

Terms of the Treaty of Bucharest 380

Russian policy in Turkey，German reorganisation of the Turkish Army，The Straits question 381

Anglo-Russian naval conversations 382

Military effect of the Balkan Wars 383

German anxieties 384

Rumania and the Triple Alliance 385

Serbo-Croat unrest 386

Austria-Hungary and Serbia，Assassination of Franz Ferdinand 387

Germany＇s attitude 388

Mobilisation of the Powers 389

Attitude of France 390

Attitude of England 391

Grey and the French coast 392

British ultimatum(4 August 1914) 392

The Outbreak of War 394

PART Ⅴ THE WAR AND ITS AFTERMATH IN EUROPE AND ASIA，1914-23 395

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅨ THE WAR，1914-18 395

Ⅰ．1914：The Russian offensive 395

The Battle of Tannenberg 397

Stalemate in the East 398

The West：The Schlieffen Plan(1905-12) 399

The German advance on Paris 400

Failure of the German plan 401

Joffre resumes the offensive，The Battle of the Marne 402

Stale-mate in the West 405

Causes of German defeat 406

Ⅱ．1915：Falkenhayn＇s plan 407

Mackensen＇s offensives in Poland and Serbia 408

British failure at the Dardanelles 409

Ⅲ．1916-17：Falkenhayn attacks Verdun 410

The Franco-British offensive on the Somme，Brussilov＇s Offensive in the east 411

Germans invade Rumania，Battle of Jutland 412

Germany decides on unrestricted submarine warfare 413

America enters the War 414

Mutiny in the French Army，British offensive at Passchendaele，The Mesopotamian campaign 416

Russian Revolution，Italian defeat at Caporetto 417

Lloyd George and Clemenceau in power 418

Ⅳ．1918：Ludendorff＇s plan for 1918 418

Allied Supreme War Council，German offensive 419

Foch and the German offensive 420

Ludendorff on the Lys and Chemin des Dames 421

Foch＇s plans for an offensive 422

Ludendorff＇s collapse，Franchet-Desperey＇s offensive at Salonica 423

Germany sues for peace 424

Causes of German defeat，The part of the United States in the War 425

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅩ THE PARIS CONFERENCE AND THE TREATY WITH GER-MANY，1919 426

The‘Big Four＇ 426

The basis of the Peace Treaty，Wilson and the League 428

Mandates and League Organisation 429

The Rhineland 430

The Polish Frontier，Czechoslovakia 431

Disarmament 432

Division of the German colonies，The Penal Clauses 433

Reparations 434

The Reparation Commission 435

‘War Guilt，＇ 436

Signature of the Treaty 437

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅪ NATION-MAKING IN THE NEW EUROPE 438

Ⅰ．Central Europe：Basis of the Treaties of St．Germain and Trianon 438

End of the Dual Monarchy，Czechoslovakia 439

Italian gains in the Tyrol 440

The new Yugoslavia，Rumania 441

Effect of the Treaty of Trianon on Central Europe 442

Ⅱ．The Baltic：Rise of the Baltic States 443

Poland and Russia 444

The Battle of Warsaw(10 August 1920)，Poland＇s eastern frontier 445

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅫ WORLD SETTLEMENT AND NATION-MAKING IN THE NEAR，MIDDLE AND FAR EAST 446

Bulgaria and Greece 446

Treaty of Sèvres(10 August 1920)，Mustafa Kemal and the‘Angora Pact，＇ 447

King Constantine attacks Mustafa Kemal，Rout of the Greeks，Lloyd George and the Straits 448

Treaty of Lausanne(24 July 1923) 448

Mustafa Kemal and the new Turkey 449

Armenian massacres，The Republic of Erivan 450

Arabs and Turks，The Grand Sheriff of Mecca，Hussein＇s overture to England 451

The Arab revolt，Lawrence and the Arabs，Fall of Damascus(October 1918) 453

Syria，Palestine and Iraq 454

Hussein driven from Mecca，Ibn Saud，King of Arabia，Persia under Reza Shah 455

The Far East：Western influences in China，Japanese aggression against China，Japan＇s desire for economic expansion 456

England termi-nates Anglo-Japanese alliance(1921)，Japanese policy 457

PART Ⅵ THE GREAT POWERS OF EUROPE IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 459

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅩⅢ MARXISM AND THE SOVIET UNION；ITALY AND GERMANY；BRITAIN AND FRANCE 459

Ⅰ．MARXISM，ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION：Hébert，Babeuf 459

French Secret Societies，Barbès and Blanqui 460

Marx and Engels 461

Communist Manifesto(1848) 462

The Revolution of 1848 463

Proudhon，The First International(1864) 464

Marx and Bakunin 465

The Paris Commune(1871) 466

The Second International(1889) 467

European Socialist Parties in 1914 468

Lenin，The Third International(1919) 469

Lenin and Trotsky，The Fourth International(1937) 470

Ⅱ．THE SOVIET UNION FROM THE REVOLUTION TO 1939：The Russian Revolution，The Petrograd Soviet，Lenin returns from exile to lead the New Government of the Soviets(February 1917)，Treaty of Brest-Litovsk(March 1918) 471

Civil War in Russia，Lenin＇s‘New Eco-nomic Policy，＇The Constitution of the U．S．S．R 472

Opposition eliminated，Trotsky，The‘Purges＇of 1936-37 473

The Russian Com-munist Party 474

Achievements of the U．S．S．R 475

Ⅲ．DICTATORSHIPS IN ITALY AND GERMANY：The Authoritarian State 476

Characteristics of the Dictatorships in Italy and Germany 477

Origins of the race theory，Gobineau and Houston Chamberlain 478

The effect of the first World War on individual freedom 479

Ⅳ．ITALY FROM THE RISORGIMENTO TO THE WAR OF 1914：The Italian Constitution 480

Economic depression，Deprétis and Crispi 481

Italian colonial ventures，Adowa(1 March 1896)，Disorders in Italy，Seizure of Tripoli(1911) 482

The War of 1914，Rout at Caporetto(1917) 483

Ⅴ．ITALY FROM GIOLITTI TO MUSSOLINI，1920-39：Seizure of Fiume，Giolitti 484

Fascist March on Rome(October 1922)，Fascist Party and Principles 485

Concordat with the Vatican(11 February 1929) 486

Constitution of Italy 487

Racial policy 488

Ⅵ．GERMANY FROM THE VERSAILLES TREATY TO HITLER，1919-33：Aftermath of war 488

Weimar Republic 489

Hindenburg President(1925) 490

Origins of Nazism，Mein Kampf 491

Anti-semitism，Hitler＇s economic programme 492

Rise of the Nazi Party 493

Hitler Chancellor(January 1933) 494

Ⅶ．HITLER：Suppression of opposition，Putsch of June 1934 494

Domestic policy，The Church and the Nazi State 495

Religious persecution，Persecution of Jews 495

The Totalitarian State 497

Ⅷ．GREAT BRITAIN AND FRANCE：Bury on freedom(1913) 497

Restrictions on freedom of opinion after 1914 498

Disadvantages of Parliamentary Government 499

France between the wars，Defects of the French Constitution 500

Rule by Decree，Croix de Feu and Front Populaire 501

Collapse of the Third Republic(10 July 1940) 502

Cabinet Government in England 503

Stability of British Common-wealth 504

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅩⅣ CO-OPERATION AND CONFLICT，1920-39 504

Ⅰ．THE POWERS AND THE LEAGUE，1920-38：Early activities of the League，The Corfu Incident(1923) 505

The Locarno Agreements(1925) 506

The Kellogg Pact(1928)，Disarmament 507

Japan and Manchuria(1931-33)，Japan＇s withdrawal from the League(1933)，Sino-Japanese War(1937) 508

Failure of disarmament(1934)，Germany leaves the League(October 1933)，Franco-Soviet Pact(2 May 1935) 509

Italy＇s attack on Abyssinia，German re-occupation of Rhineland(7 March 1936)，and its effects 510

Spain 1930-36 511

Spanish Civil War(1936-39)，‘Non-intervention，＇ 512

Conference of Nyon(September 1937)，The League and the Spanish Civil War 513

Ⅱ．HILTER＇S DRIVE TO THE EAST，1938：Hitler＇s demand for Colonies，Neville Chamberlain and the Covenant 514

Anschluss(March 1938)，Anti-Comintern Pact，Rome-Berlin Axis 515

Encirclement of Czechoslovakia，Czech Frontiers of 1919 516

Sudeten Germans 517

Czech domestic policy，Treatment of minorities 518

Economic and political factors 519

Foreign policy of Benes(1919-33) 520

Crisis of May 1938 521

Sokol display in Prague(July 1938)，Sudeten threats of secession，Attitude of France and Russia 522

England and Czecho-slovakia，Frontier incidents，Hitler＇s demands 523

Four Power con-ference，Munich Agreement(September 29) 524

Aftermath of Munich 525

Ⅲ．FROM MUNICH TO THE WAR OF 1939：Anglo-German declaration(September 30) 525

Britain and Germany，The Colonial question 526

Italy＇s demands，Internal strife in France 527

Persecution of Jews in Germany，Destruction of Czechoslovakia 528

Its effects，Britain＇s pledge to Poland，Memel ceded to Germany 529

Italy seizes Albania，Roosevelt＇s appeal 530

Conscription in Britain，German-Polish tension 531

Russo-German Pact(23 August 1939) 533

Russia，France and Britain 533

Danzig，Final stage of Polish crisis 535

Outbreak of War 536

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅩⅤ EUROPE AT WAR，1939-45 536

1939：Extent of the War and its influence on European State System 536

Campaign in Poland(September)，4th Partition of Poland(September 28) 538

Western Front 539

Baltic States，Russo-Finnish War(November) 540

1940：Norwegian campaign(April-June) 540

German invasion of Low Countries and France(10 May) 541

Battle of France，Italy enters the War(10 June)，Fall of Paris(14 June) 542

France sues for armistice，French Fleet，Terms of Franco-German and Franco-Italian armistices 543

War at sea(1939-40) 544

Battle of Britain 545

War in the Balkans(October 1940-May 1941) 546

1941：Near and Middle East，Malta 547

Battle for Egypt(September 1940-March 1941)，British conquest of East Africa(July 1940-November 1941)，Axis victories in N．Africa(March 1941-July 1942) 549

German attack on Russia(22 June)and rapid German advance(June-December) 550

1942：German armies reach the Volga and Don(August) 551

Battle of Stalingrad(November 1942-January 1943)，America and the war 553

Lease-Lend Act(11 March 1941)，America and Japan，Pearl Harbour(7 December 1941) 554

America and Japan enter the War，Allied disasters in the Far East 555

1943：North African Campaigns(October 1942-May 1943) 556

Mediterranean theatre，Invasion of Italy，Fall of Mussolini，Italian armistice(3 September 558

Italian campaign(September 1943-May 1945) 558

Russian Front(February 1943-April 1944)，Russian advance approaches Germany 560

Allied Air-offensive against Germany，1942-44，German‘V＇weapons 561

1944：Invasion of western Europe(6 June) 562

Battle of Falaise，Liberation of Paris(25 August)，Invasion of southern France(15 Liberation of Paris(25 August)，Invasion of southern France(15 August)，Liberation of Brussels(3 September) 563

Allies enter the Saar 564

The Eastern Front：Finnish Armistice(19 September)，Russian advance in Baltic countries 564

Allied victories in the Balkans 565

German Counter-offensive in the Ardennes(December) 565

1945：Crossing of the Rhine(7 March)，Final offensives from east，west and south，Capture of Berlin by Russians(2 May) 566

German capitulation(7 May) 567

Far East，1945-45：Offensive and Counter-offensive in Burma(February 1944-May 1945)，Re-conquest of Pacific islands 567

U．S．troops approach Japan，Capture of Iwojima(March 1945)and Okinawa(June 1945)，Air-offensive against Japan，Potsdam Declaration(26 July 1945)，Russia declares War on Japan(8 August)，Atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima(6 August)and Nagasaki(9 August)，Japanese capitulation(14 August) 568

CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅥ THE POLITICAL STATE OF EUROPE，1945-50 569

Political balance in Europe，The Atlantic Chater(August 1941) 569

Italy：drafting of the Italian peace treaty and its terms(10 February 1947) 570

Austria：Allied intentions to re-establish an independent Austria，Administration of Austria，Allied attempts and failure to draft a peace treaty 571

Germany：‘Unconditional surrender，＇ 572

Allied decisions on Germany＇s future，Partition into Zones 573

The Potsdam Agreement，Failure of Allied control machinery 574

The two German Republics 575

Eastern Europe：Treaties of Peace between the Allies and Hungary，Bulgaria and Rumania(10 February 1947)，Poland 575

Czechoslovakia，Yugoslavia，Finland 577

Western Europe：Marshall Aid Plan，The Atlantic Treaty(4 April 1949) 577

Fourth French Republic(24 December 1946)，Council of Europe 578

Far East：Japan deprived of her conquests，Victory of Communists in China 578

EPILOGUE 579

MOVEMENTS FOR PEACE IN THE NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CENTURIES：Ideas of Czar Alexander I，Castlereagh＇s idea of a Congress 579

Alexander and European Unity(1818)，The National ideal 580

Clarendon and mediation，Growth of the practice of arbitration，The Hague Conferences(1899 and 1907) 581

The League of Nations，and its failure 583

Plans for a new international organisation，Dum-barton Oaks Conferences(August-October 1944)，San Francisco Con-ference(April-June 1945)，United Nations Charter and agencies，The Charter and the Covenant 583

INDEX 587