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Ⅰ．THE BACKGROUND AND FIELD OF RHE-TORIC 1

Historical Background of Rhetoric 1

What Rhetoric Treats about To-day 3

Rhetoric as a Practical Study 4

Ⅱ．RHETORIC AS PRACTICED WITH WORDS 6

General Discussion 6

Ⅰ．Kind of Words to Choose 7

（A）Choosing Words According to Nature 7

1．Words for Clearness 7

（1）Simple Words 7

Exercises 8

（2）Specific Words 8

Exercises 10

（3）Denotative Words 10

Exercises 11

2．Words for Accuracy 12

（1）Words of Right Shade of Meaning 12

Examples 13

（2）Words of Right Degree of Meaning 14

Examples 14

（3）Words of Right Kind of Meaning 15

Examples 15

Exercises 16

3．Words for Effectiveness 17

Words for Connotation 18

（a）Idiomatic Words 18

（b）Descriptive Words 19

（c）Figurative Words 22

（1）Similes 24

（2）Metaphors 25

（3）Metonymy 26

（4）Personification 26

Exercises 28

（B）Choosing Words According to Use 29

Words in Good Use 30

（a）Present Words 30

（b）Reputable Words 32

（c）National Words 33

Exercises 35

Ⅱ．Kind of Words to Avoid 35

（A）Words to Avoid for Practical Utility 36

1．Foreign Words not Naturalized 36

2．Obsolete Words 37

3．Newly-Coined Words 37

4．Technical Words 38

（B）Words to Avoid for Good Taste 39

1．Colloquialisms 39

2．Provincialisms 41

3．Vulgarisms 42

Exercises 43

Ⅲ．RHETORIC AS PRACTICED WITH SEN-TENCES 44

General Discussion 44

Grammatical and Rhetorical Classification of Sentences 44

The Structure of Sentences 45

1．Simple Form 46

2．Modified and Enlarged Form 46

Pleonastic Sentence Structure 47

Elliptical Sentence Structure 47

The Uses of Sentences 48

（1）The Use of Simple Sentence 48

（2）The Use of Compound Sentence 48

（3）The Use of Complex Sentence 48

（4）The Use of Compound-Complex Sentence 49

（5）The Use of Periodic Sentence 49

（6）The Use of Loose Sentence 49

（7）The Use of Balanced Sentence 50

The Essential Qualities of Sentences 50

1．Sentence Clearness 51

Ⅰ．Correct Diction 51

（a）Position of Adverbs 51

（b）Position of Modifiers in General 52

（c）Use of Pronouns 52

（d）Watch for Squinting Construction 52

Ⅱ．Proper Punctuation 53

（a）Placing of Period 53

（b）Insertion of Comma and Semicolon 53

（c）Use of Interrogation Point 53

2．Sentence Unity 54

How to Preserve Sentence Unity 54

（a）First Determine Central Thought 54

（b）Use Additional Clause for Ex-planation 54

（c）Group Clauses with Semicolons 54

Precautions Concerning Sentence Unity 56

Precaution 1 Change of Subject 56

Precaution 2 Separation of Ideas 57

Precaution 3 Crowding Details 57

Precaution 4 Loose Arrangement of Relative Clauses 58

Ways for Telling Sentence Unity 58

1．By Total Impression 58

2．By Proper Relation of Clauses 59

Exercises for Sentence Unity 60

3．Sentence Coherence 61

What Sentence Coherence Is 61

Ⅰ．Promotion of Sentence Coherence 62

（a）Natural Order of Words 62

（b）Logical Use of Negatives 63

（c）Logical Connections and Rela-tionships 64

Ⅱ．Violation of Sentence Coherence 64

（a）Needless Change of Construction 65

（b）Relation between Participle and Noun or Pronoun 65

（c）Relation between Pronoun and Antecedent 66

Exercises for Sentence Coherence 67

4．Sentence Emphasis 67

What Sentence Emphasis Is 67

How to Secure it 68

Ⅰ．By Position 68

（a）Beginning and End of Sentence 68

（b）Order of Climax 69

（c）Inverted Word Order 69

Ⅱ．By Word Manipulation 69

（a）Word Repetition 70

（b）Word Antithesis 70

（c）Omission of Unimportant Words 70

Emphatic Sentences 70

（1）Short Sentence 71

（2）Periodic Sentence 71

（3）Balanced Sentence 71

Exercises for Sentence Emphasis 72

5．Sentence Euphony 73

What Sentence Euphony Is 73

Ⅰ．Promotion of Sentence Euphony 73

（a）By a Natural Beginning 73

（b）By Easy Movement 74

（c）By Cadence at the End 74

Ⅱ．Violation of Sentence Euphony 75

（a）From Needless Repetition 75

（b）From Harsh Combinations 75

（c）From Metrical Structure 76

（d）From Frequent Alliteration 76

Exercises for Sentence Euphony 77

6．Sentence Strength 77

What Sentence Strength Is 77

How to Secure It 78

（1）Careful Use of Connective Words 78

（2）Similar Construction of Contrasted Members 78

（3）Liberal Use of Particular Terms 79

Exercises for Sentence Strength 79

Idiomatic Sentences Needing Special At-tention 80

Ⅳ．RHETORIC AS PRACTICED WITH PARA-GRAPHS 82

General Discussion 82

Paragraph-Thought 82

What a Paragraph Is 83

The Topic of the Paragraph 84

Paragraph as an Organic Structure 85

Paragraph Plan 85

Paragraph Analyzed 86

Means of Paragraph Development 88

1．By Definition 88

Example Analyzed 89

2．By Particulars and Details 89

Examples Analyzed 90

3．BY Comparison and Illustration 91

Example Analyzed 91

4．By Specific Instances or Examples 92

Example Analyzed 92

5．By Presenting Reasons 93

Examples Analyzed 93

6．By Applying a Principle 95

Example Analyzed 95

7．By Stating Causes and Effects 96

Examples Analyzed 96

8．By Introductory and Summarizing Sen-tences 98

（a）The Introductory Sentence 98

Example Analyzed 99

（b）The Transitional Sentence 99

Example Analyzed 99

（c）The Summarizing Sentence 100

Example Analyzed 100

General Laws Governing Paragraphs 101

1．Paragraph Unity 101

Examples Analyzed 102

2．Paragraph Selection 104

Examples Analyzed 105

3．Paragraph Coherence 107

（a）The Proper Arrangement of Sentences 107

Example Analyzed 108

（b）The Use of Proper Connecting Words 109

Example Analyzed 109

4．Paragraph Proportion 110

（a）Sufficient Details to Show Purpose 111

Example 111

（b）Adequate Amplification 111

Example 112

（c）Ordinary Illustration for Simple State-ment 112

Example 113

5．Paragraph Emphasis 113

（a）By Repetition 113

Example 113

（b）By Space 114

Example 114

（c）By Contrast 115

Example 115

（d）By Position 116

Example 116

6．Paragraph Variety 116

What Paragraph Variety Is 116

Variety Secured by Diversity of Sentences 117

Example Analyzed 117

Types of Paragraph Structure 118

General Discussion 118

Kinds of Paragraph Structure 119

Ⅰ．Expository and Argumentative Paragraphs 120

（a）Logical Methods 120

1．Inductive Method 120

Example Analyzed 121

2．Deductive Method 121

Example Analyzed 122

Two Methods Compared 123

（b）Less Formal Methods 123

1．Paragraph Developed Through Definition 123

Example Analyzed 123

2．Paragraph Developed Through Specific In-stances 124

Example Analyzed 124

3．Paragraph Developed Through Causes and Results 125

Example Analyzed 125

Ⅱ．Descriptive and Narrative Paragraphs 125

1．By Giving Incident 126

Example Analyzed 126

2．By Character Sketches 127

Example Analyzed 127

3．By Descriptive Sketches 129

Example Analyzed 129

Kinds of Paragraphs 130

Ⅰ．The Isolated Paragraphs 131

Example Analyzed1 131

Ⅱ．The Related Paragraphs 132

1．Introductory Paragraph 132

Example Analyzed 132

2．Transitional Paragraph 133

Example Analyzed 133

3．Amplifying Paragraph 133

Example Analyzed 134

4．Concluding Paragraph 135

Example Analyzed 135

Exercises on Isolated Paragraphs 136

Exercises on Related Paragraphs 139

Written Exercises on Paragraphs 154

Ⅴ．RHETORIC AS PRACTICED WITH WHOLE COMPOSITIONS 156

General Discussion 156

The Ways We Learn to Write Compositions 156

Why Rhetoric Is Necessary in Composition 157

General Rhetorical Principles of Relation 158

1．The Principle of Distinction 159

Example Analyzed 159

2．The Principle of Sequence 161

Example Analyzed 161

3．The Principle of Climax 161

Example Analyzed 162

The Logical Order of Thought-Grouping 163

1．The Defining Stage—Introduction 163

2．The Developing Stage—Discussion 164

3．The Applying Stage—Conclusion 164

The Practical Plan of Composition 165

（A）Concerning Introduction 165

Examples Analyzed 165

（B）Concerning Development or Amplification 168

1．To Aid Memory—The Psychological Laws 168

（a）The Law of Contiguity 168

Example Analyzed 169

（b）The Law of Similarity and Con-trast 170

Example Analyzed 170

（c）The Law of Cause and Effect 171

Example Analyzed 171

2．To Give Good Movement—Two Orders of Thought Building 172

（1）Inductive Order 172

Example Analyzed 173

（2）Deductive Order 173

Example Analyzed 174

（C）Concerning Conclusion 175

1．Intellectual Type 175

Example 176

2．Emotional Type 176

Example 176

Classification of Compositions 177

Ⅰ．Description 177

Purpose of Description 177

Example Analyzed 178

Methods in Description 179

1．The Popular Method 179

Example 179

2．The Artistic Method 180

Example 180

3．The Scientific Method 180

Example 180

4．The Suggestive Method 181

Example 181

Points of View in Description 182

1．The Fixed Point of View 182

Example 182

2．The Changeable Point of View 183

Example Analyzed 183

Selection of Details 185

Examples 185

Descriptive Compositions for Study 185

Descriptive Compositions for Exercises 190

Suggestions for Writing Descriptions 190

Ⅱ．Narration 191

Purpose of Narration 191

Example Analyzed 192

The Principal Elements in Narration 192

1．The Plot 192

2．The Setting 193

3．The Character 193

General Classification of Narratives 194

Simple Narrative 194

Example Analyzed 194

The Requisites of Simple Narratives 195

The Unity of Simple Narrative 196

Example Analvzed 196

The Sequence of Simple Narrative 197

Example Analyzed 197

The Climax of Simple Narrative 198

Example Analyzed 198

The Complex Narrative 199

How to Change Simple Narrative into Complex Narrative 199

The Obstacles,Physical and Mental 201

Examples Analyzed 201

The Suspense 202

Example 202

The Beginning of Narrative 203

Example Analyzed 203

The Climax of Narrative 204

Example 204

The Conclusion of Narrative 204

Example 204

Narratives for Study 205

Narrative Compositions for Exercises 207

Suggestions for Writing Narratives 209

Ⅲ．Exposition 211

Purpose of Exposition 211

Example Analyzed 212

Effective Exposition 213

Process of Exposition—Analysis 214

Example Analyzed 214

Methods of Exposition 215

1．Exposition by Narration or Descrip-tion 215

Example Analyzed 215

2．Exposition by Paraphrase 216

Example Analyzed 217

3．Exposition by Abstract 218

Example Analyzed 218

4．Exposition by Definition—Intensive Exposition 219

Logical Definition 219

Example Analyzed 219

Other Means of Logical Definition 220

1．Exposition by Antithesis 220

Example 220

2．Exposition by Iteration 221

Example 221

3．Exposition by Analogy 222

Example 222

4．Exposition by Exemplification 222

Example 223

Expository Compositions for Study 226

Expository Compositions for Criticism 231

Subjects for Written Exercises 233

Ⅳ．Argumentation 234

Purpose of Argumentation 234

Argumentation and Exposition 234

Steps in Argumentation 235

1．The Choice of the Subject 235

2．The Wording of the Subject 235

3．The Analysis of the Subject 236

4．The Development of the Arguments 236

5．The Conclusion 236

Example Analyzed 237

Two Forms of Argumentation 239

（Ⅰ）Constructive Argumentation 239

A．Through Direct Inquiry 240

1．Personal Observation 240

Example Analyzed 240

2．Testimony 241

Example Analyzed 241

3．Authority 242

Example 242

B．Through Reasoning—Induction 243

1．Inference from Particulars 243

Example Analyzed 244

2．Particulars Viewed as Cause or Effect 244

Example Analyzed 244

3．Particulars as Circumstantial Evidence 245

Example Analyzed 246

4．Particulars as Example and Analogy 247

Example Analyzed 247

C．Through Reasoning—Deduction 248

1．Syllogism in Literature 249

Example Analyzed 249

2．Syllogism in Enthymeme 250

Example Analyzed 250

3．Syllogism in Enlargement 251

Example Analyzed 251

（Ⅱ）Destructive Argumentation 252

Ⅰ．Analysis of Issues 252

（a）By Reducing to Alternatives 252

Example Analyzed 253

（b）By Reductio ad Absurdum 254

Example 254

（c）By Dilemma 255

Example Analyzed 255

Ⅱ．Exposure of Fallacies 256

（a）By Detailed Analysis 256

Example 256

（b）By Parity of Reasoning 257

Example 257

Argumentative Compositions for Study 258

Argumentative Compositions for Exer-cise 263

Suggestions for Writing Argumentative Compositions 264