LAW AND REGULATION OF COMMERCIAL MINIG OF MINERALS IN OUTER SPACEPDF电子书下载

1 Introduction and Overview 1

1.1 The Problem 1

1.1.1 The Context 1

1.1.2 Structure of the Monograph 2

1.2 Historical Background 4

1.2.1 Technological Evolution 4

1.2.2 The Post-Cold War World 5

1.2.3 The Hypothesis 7

1.3 Economic and Technical Prospects of Mining on Celestial Bodies 8

1.4 Liability and State Responsibility for Compliance with International Legal Principles 9

1.4.1 Phases of a Commercial Space Mining Venture 9

1.4.2 Applicable Legal Issues 10

1.4.3 State Responsibility and International Liability 11

1.5 Exploration and Extraction Rights 13

1.6 Exploitation Rights: Effects of the Common Heritage of Mankind Doctrine 14

1.7 Meeting the Challenges and Balancing the Competing Interests in Creating a Regulatory Framework for Mineral Resources in Space 16

1.7.1 Meeting the Challenges 16

1.7.2 Balancing the Competing Interests 17

1.7.3 Structure and Composition 18

1.7.4 Procedures 18

1.7.5 Judicial Mechanisms 19

1.8 Conclusions 20

2 Economic and Technical Prospects of Mining on Celestial Bodies 21

2.1 Introduction 21

2.2 Economic Feasibility of Space Mining 26

2.2.1 The Study of Resource Economics 26

2.2.2 Economic Scarcity of Mineral Resources 32

2.2.3 Implications of the Hydrogen Economy 45

2.3 Expanding the Economic Resource Base 48

2.4 The Riches of Space 51

2.4.1 Mining the Moon 51

2.4.2 Resources from Mars and Other Planets 52

2.4.3 Geology and Mineralogy of Asteroids and Their Suitability for Mining Activities 55

2.4.4 Suitability of Near Earth Asteroids 60

2.4.5 Other Groups of Potential Mining Candidates 66

2.5 Technical Feasibility of Space Mining 69

2.5.1 Orbital Mechanics 69

2.5.2 Mission Trajectories 73

2.5.3 Energy Requirements for the Mining and Processing of Ores 76

2.6 Exploratory Missions to Near Earth Asteroids 77

2.6.1 Flyby Missions 78

2.6.2 Rendezvous and Lander Missions 80

2.6.3 Sample Return Missions 80

2.7 Commercial Feasibility of Space Mining 82

2.7.1 Advantages of Mining Near Earth Asteroids 82

2.7.2 Costing an Asteroid Mining Project 83

2.7.3 Determining Financial Feasibility 85

2.7.4 Comparing Returns on Investment 86

2.7.5 Minimisation of Mission Risks 87

2.7.6 Practical Implications of Risk Profiles 92

2.8 Conclusions 93

3 State Responsibility and Liability for Compliance with International Space Law 95

3.1 Introduction 95

3.2 Sources of Space Law 98

3.2.1 United Nations Space Treaties 98

3.2.2 General Assembly Declarations 111

3.2.3 Jus Cogens: Space Law Principles as Possible Peremptory Norms of International Law 124

3.2.4 Other Space-Related Treaties 126

3.2.5 Space Law and the Lex Specialis Principle 127

3.3 State Responsibility and Jurisdiction 128

3.3.1 State Responsibility 128

3.3.2 Jurisdiction 134

3.4 Liability 136

3.4.1 Overview 136

3.4.2 International Liability 137

3.4.3 Modern Liability Controversies 142

3.4.4 Calculation of Damages 148

3.5 Conclusions 150

4 Rights and Duties in the Commercial Exploration and Extraction of Mineral Resources on Celestial Bodies 153

4.1 Introduction 153

4.2 Commercial Use vs. Public Use 154

4.2.1 Benefit and Interests of All Countries 154

4.2.2 Lawfulness of Commercial Use Generally 160

4.3 Freedoms of Exploration and Use and the Principle of Non-appropriation 162

4.3.1 Freedoms Under Article I of the Outer Space Treaty 162

4.3.2 Article II of the Outer Space Treaty 166

4.3.3 Relevant Provisions of the Moon Agreement 179

4.3.4 Defining a Celestial Body 187

4.4 Environmental Protection of Celestial Bodies 192

4.4.1 Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty 192

4.4.2 Article 7 of the Moon Agreement 193

4.5 Legal Implications for a Regulatory Regime for Exploration of Mineral Resources on Celestial Bodies 194

4.5.1 Two Types of Exploration 194

4.5.2 The Exploration Segment Generally 195

4.5.3 Prospecting Activities 196

4.5.4 Exploration Activities 196

4.6 Legal Implications for a Regulatory Regime for Extraction of Mineral Resources on Celestial Bodies 197

4.6.1 Sovereignty over Mineral Resources 197

4.6.2 Extraction Methods 198

4.7 Conclusions 202

5 Exploitation Rights: Evolving from the "Province of Mankind" to the "Common Heritage of Mankind" 203

5.1 Introduction 203

5.2 Antarctica and the 1988 Wellington Convention 204

5.2.1 The Antarctic Treaty Framework 204

5.2.2 Operation of the Antarctic Treaty System 206

5.2.3 The Wellington Convention 211

5.3 Outer Space as the Province of All Mankind 216

5.3.1 Interpreting Article I of the Outer Space Treaty 216

5.3.2 Correlation with Article II of the Outer Space Treaty 217

5.4 The New International Economic Order 219

5.4.1 Origins of the New International Economic Order 219

5.4.2 Sixth Special Session of the General Assembly and the Principles of the New International Economic Order 223

5.5 Origins of the Common Heritage of Mankind Concept in the Context of the Deep Seabed 229

5.5.1 The Old Law of the High Seas 229

5.5.2 The Old Law of the Deep Seabed 232

5.5.3 Proposal from Malta that "Detonated the Time Bomb" 234

5.5.4 Negotiating History on the Deep Seabed 236

5.6 Part XI of the Convention on the Law of the Sea and the Effects of the Common Heritage of Mankind 244

5.6.1 Overview and the Features of Part XI 244

5.6.2 Decision-Making in the International Seabed Authority 247

5.6.3 The Enterprise 248

5.6.4 Compulsory Transfer of Technology 249

5.6.5 Limitations on Production 250

5.6.6 Financial Terms of the Contracts 251

5.6.7 The Ultimate Compromise 252

5.7 Evolution of Article 11 of the Moon Agreement 256

5.7.1 Early Controversies 256

5.7.2 Provisions of the Moon Agreement 260

5.7.3 Article 6 of the Moon Agreement 264

5.7.4 Article 11 of the Moon Agreement 264

5.7.5 Article 18 of the Moon Agreement 266

5.7.6 Attempts at Resolving the Political Impasse 267

5.8 Conclusions 270

6 Meeting the Challenges and Balancing the Competing Interests in Creating a Legal and Regulatory Framework 273

6.1 Introduction 273

6.2 Need for Balancing Competing Interests 275

6.2.1 Overview 275

6.2.2 Industrialised States vs. Developing States 276

6.2.3 Economic Development vs. Environmental Safeguards 282

6.2.4 Regulation vs. Free Market 287

6.2.5 Public Interest vs. Commercial Concerns 290

6.2.6 Hard Law vs. Soft Law 293

6.3 Practical Implementation of the New Legal Framework 295

6.3.1 Overview 295

6.3.2 Implementation Agreement 296

6.3.3 Organisational Structure 296

6.3.4 Membership of the Authority 297

6.4 Administrative and Dispute Settlement Mechanisms 303

6.4.1 Enforcement and Dispute Settlement Mechanisms 303

6.4.2 Licensing Oversight Panel 304

6.4.3 Financial Duties Panel 305

6.4.4 Environmental Protection Panel 307

6.4.5 Dispute Settlement Panel and the Space Development Appeals Tribunal 307

6.5 Financing the Proposed Authority 311

6.6 Conclusions 313

7 Concluding Observations 315

7.1 Quod Erat Demonstrandum 315

7.1.1 Elements of Proving the Hypothesis 315

7.1.2 Economic Scarcity of Resources in the Earth's Crust 316

7.1.3 Physical and Technical Feasibility of Asteroid Mining 316

7.1.4 Economic and Financial Feasibility of Commercial Mining on Near Earth Asteroids 317

7.1.5 Absence of an Appropriate Legal Framework 317

7.2 Quod Erat Meliorandum 318

7.2.1 Conceptual Evolution of the Common Heritage of Mankind 318

7.2.2 Past Failures over the Deep Seabed and Antarctica 319

7.2.3 Attempt to Create a Legal Framework for the Exploitation of Mineral Resources on Celestial Bodies 319

7.2.4 Balancing the Interests of Competing Stakeholders 320

7.3 Quod Erat Faciendum 320

7.3.1 Creating a New Legal Framework 320

7.3.2 Practical Aspects of the New Legal Framework 321

7.3.3 How the World May Change 321

References 323

Treaties 323

United Nations Documents 326

International Cases 328

Domestic Legislation and Regulations 328

Domestic Cases 329

Secondary Sources 329

Index 369