FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS FOURTH EDITIONPDF电子书下载

PART 1Fundamental Principles 1

Chapter1 Aerodynamics：Some Introductory Thoughts 3

1.1 Importance of Aerodynamics：Historical Examples 5

1.2 Aerodynamics：Classification and Practical Objectives 11

1.3 Road Map for This Chapter 14

1.4 Some Fundamental Aerodynamic Variables 15

1.4.1 Units 18

1.5 Aerodynamic Forces and Moments 19

1.6 Center of Pressure 32

1.7 Dimensional Analysis：The Buckingham Pi Theorem 34

1.8 Flow Similarity 40

1.9 Fluid Statics：Buoyancy Force 51

1.10 Types of Flow 57

1.10.1 Continuum Versus Free Molecule Flow 58

1.10.2 Inviscid Versus Viscous Flow 58

1.10.3 Incompressible Versus Compressible Flows 60

1.10.4 Mach Number Regimes 60

1.11 Viscous Flow：Introduction to Boundary Layers 64

1.12 Applied Aerodynamics：The Aerodynamic Coefficients—Their Magnitudes and Variations 71

1.13 Historical Note：The Illusive Center of Pressure 83

1.14 Historical Note：Aerodynamic Coefficients 87

1.15 Summary 91

1.16 Problems 92

Chapter 2 Aerodynamics：Some Fundamental Principles and Equations 95

2.1 Introduction and Road Map 96

2.2 Review of Vector Relations 97

2.2.1 Some Vector Algebra 98

2.2.2 Typical Orthogonal Coordinate Systems 99

2.2.3 Scalar and Vector Fields 102

2.2.4 Scalar and Vector Products 102

2.2.5 Gradient of a Scalar Field 103

2.2.6 Divergence of a Vector Field 105

2.2.7 Curl of a Vector Field 106

2.2.8 Line Integrals 106

2.2.9 Surface Integrals 107

2.2.10 Volume Integrals 108

2.2.11 Relations Between Line，Surface，and Volume Integrals 109

2.2.12 Summary 109

2.3 Models of the Fluid：Control Volumes and Fluid Elements 109

2.3.1 Finite Control Volume Approach 110

2.3.2 Infinitesimal Fluid Element Approach 111

2.3.3 Molecular Approach 111

2.3.4 Physical Meaning of the Divergence of Velocity 112

2.3.5 Specification of the Flow Field 113

2.4 Continuity Equation 117

2.5 Momentum Equation 122

2.6 An Application of the Momentum Equation：Drag of a Two-Dimensional Body 127

2.6.1 Comment 136

2.7 Energy Equation 136

2.8 Interim Summary 141

2.9 Substantial Derivative 142

2.10 Fundamental Equations in Terms of the Substantial Derivative 145

2.11 Pathlines，Streamlines，and Streaklines of a Flow 147

2.12 Angular Velocity，Vorticity，and Strain 152

2.13 Circulation 162

2.14 Stream Function 165

2.15 Velocity Potential 169

2.16 Relationship Between the Stream Function and Velocity Potential 171

2.17 How Do We Solve the Equations？ 172

2.17.1 Theoretical （Analytical） Solutions 172

2.17.2 Numerical Solutions—Computational Fluid Dynamics （CFD） 174

2.17.3 The Bigger Picture 181

2.18 Summary 181

2.19 Problems 185

PART 2 Inviscid，Incompressible Flow 187

Chapter 3 Fundamentals of Inviscid，Incompressible Flow 189

3.1 Introduction and Road Map 190

3.2 Bernoulli’s Equation 193

3.3 Incompressible Flow in a Duct：The Venturi and Low-Speed Wind Tunnel 197

3.4 Pitot Tube：Measurement of Airspeed 210

3.5 Pressure Coefficient 219

3.6 Condition on Velocity for Incompressible Flow 221

3.7 Governing Equation for Irrotational，Incompressible Flow：Laplace’s Equation 222

3.7.1 Infinity Boundary Conditions 225

3.7.2 Wall Boundary Conditions 225

3.8 Interim Summary 226

3.9 Uniform Flow：Our First Elementary Flow 227

3.10 Source Flow：Our Second Elementary Flow 229

3.11 Combination of a Uniform Flow with a Source and Sink 233

3.12 Doublet Flow：Our Third Elementary Flow 237

3.13 Nonlifting Flow over a Circular Cylinder 239

3.14 Vortex Flow：Our Fourth Elementary Flow 245

3.15 Lifting Flow over a Cylinder 249

3.16 The Kutta-Joukowski Theorem and the Generation of Lift 262

3.17 Nonlifting Flows over Arbitrary Bodies：The Numerical Source Panel Method 264

3.18 Applied Aerodynamics：The Flow over a Circular Cylinder—The Real Case 274

3.19 Historical Note：Bernoulli and Euler—The Origins of Theoretical Fluid Dynamics 282

3.20 Historical Note：d’Alembert and His Paradox 287

3.21 Summary 288

3.22 Problems 291

Chapter 4 Incompressible Flow over Airfoils 295

4.1 Introduction 297

4.2 Airfoil Nomenclature 300

4.3 Airfoil Characteristics 302

4.4 Philosophy of Theoretical Solutions for Low-Speed Flow over Airfoils：The Vortex Sheet 307

4.5 The Kutta Condition 312

4.5.1 Without Friction Could We Have Lift？ 316

4.6 Kelvin’s Circulation Theorem and the Starting Vortex 316

4.7 Classical Thin Airfoil Theory：The Symmetric Airfoil 319

4.8 The Cambered Airfoil 329

4.9 The Aerodynamic Center：Additional Considerations 338

4.10 Lifting Flows over Arbitrary Bodies：The Vortex Panel Numerical Method 342

4.11 Modern Low-Speed Airfoils 348

4.12 Viscous Flow：Airfoil Drag 352

4.12.1 Estimating Skin-Friction Drag：Laminar Flow 353

4.12.2 Estimating Skin-Friction Drag：Turbulent Flow 355

4.12.3 Transition 357

4.12.4 Flow Separation 362

4.12.5 Comment 367

4.13 Applied Aerodynamics：The Flow over an Airfoil—The Real Case 368

4.14 Historical Note：Early Airplane Design and the Role of Airfoil Thickness 379

4.15 Historical Note：Kutta，Joukowski，and the Circulation Theory of Lift 384

4.16 Summary 386

4.17 Problems 388

Chapter 5 Incompressible Flow over Finite Wings 391

5.1 Introduction：Downwash and Induced Drag 395

5.2 The Vortex Filament，the Biot-Savart Law，and Helmholtz’s Theorems 400

5.3 Prandtl’s Classical Lifting-Line Theory 404

5.3.1 Elliptical Lift Distribution 410

5.3.2 General Lift Distribution 415

5.3.3 Effect of Aspect Ratio 418

5.3.4 Physical Significance 424

5.4 A Numerical Nonlinear Lifting-Line Method 433

5.5 The Lifting-Surface Theoryand the Vortex Lattice Numerical Method 437

5.6 Applied Aerodynamics：The Delta Wing 444

5.7 Historical Note：Lanchester and Prandtl—The Early Development of Finite-Wing Theory 456

5.8 Historical Note：Prandtl—The Man 460

5.9 Summary 463

5.10 Problems 464

Chapter 6 Three-Dimensional Incompressible Flow 467

6.1 Introduction 467

6.2 Three-Dimensional Source 468

6.3 Three-Dimensional Doublet 470

6.4 Flow over a Sphere 472

6.4.1 Comment on the Three-Dimensional Relieving Effect 474

6.5 General Three-Dimensional Flows：Panel Techniques 475

6.6 Applied Aerodynamics：The Flow over a Sphere—The Real Case 477

6.7 Summary 480

6.8 Problems 481

PART 3Inviscid，Compressible Flow 483

Chapter 7 Compressible Flow：Some Preliminary Aspects 485

7.1 Introduction 486

7.2 A Brief Review of Thermodynamics 488

7.2.1 Perfect Gas 488

7.2.2 Internal Energy and Enthalpy 488

7.2.3 First Law of Thermodynamics 492

7.2.4 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 493

7.2.5 Isentropic Relations 495

7.3 Definition of Compressibility 497

7.4 Governing Equations for Inviscid，Compressible Flow 499

7.5 Definition of Total （Stagnation）Conditions 501

7.6 Some Aspects of Supersonic Flow：Shock Waves 507

7.7 Summary 510

7.8 Problems 513

Chapter 8 Normal Shock Waves and Related Topics 515

8.1 Introduction 516

8.2 The Basic Normal Shock Equations 517

8.3 Speed of Sound 521

8.4 Special Forms of the Energy Equation 527

8.5 When Is a Flow Compressible？ 534

8.6 Calculation of Normal Shock-Wave Properties 537

8.7 Measurement of Velocity in a Compressible Flow 548

8.7.1 Subsonic Compressible Flow 548

8.7.2 Supersonic Flow 549

8.8 Summary 553

8.9 Problems 556

Chapter 9Oblique Shock and Expansion Waves 559

9.1 Introduction 560

9.2 Oblique Shock Relations 566

9.3 Supersonic Flow over Wedges and Cones 580

9.4 Shock Interactions and Reflections 583

9.5 Detached Shock Wave in Front of a Blunt Body 589

9.6 Prandtl-Meyer Expansion Waves 591

9.7 Shock-Expansion Theory：Applications to Supersonic Airfoils 602

9.8 A Comment on Lift and Drag Coefficients 606

9.9 Viscous Flow：Shock-Wave/Boundary-Layer Interaction 606

9.10 Historical Note：Ernst Mach—A Biographical Sketch 609

9.11 Summary 611

9.12 Problems 612

Chapter 10 Compressible Flow Through Nozzles，Diffusers，and Wind Tunnels 617

10.1 Introduction 618

10.2 Governing Equations for Quasi-One-Dimensional Flow 620

10.3 Nozzle Flows 629

10.3.1 More on Mass Flow 643

10.4 Diffusers 644

10.5 Supersonic Wind Tunnels 646

10.6 Viscous Flow：Shock-Wave/Boundary-Layer Interaction Inside Nozzles 652

10.7 Summary 654

10.8 Problems 655

Chapter 11 Subsonic Compressible Flow over Airfoils：Linear Theory 657

11.1 Introduction 658

11.2 The Velocity Potential Equation 660

11.3 The Linearized Velocity Potential Equation 663

11.4 Prandtl-Glauert Compressibility Correction 668

11.5 Improved Compressibility Corrections 673

11.6 Critical Mach Number 674

11.6.1 A Comment on the Location of Minimum Pressure （Maximum Velocity） 683

11.7 Drag-Divergence Mach Number：The Sound Barrier 683

11.8 The Area Rule 691

11.9 The Supercritical Airfoil 693

11.10 CFD Applications：Transonic Airfoils and Wings 695

11.11 Historical Note：High-Speed Airfoils—Early Research and Development 700

11.12 Historical Note：Richard T.Whitcomb—Architect of the Area Rule and the Supercritical Wing 704

11.13 Summary 706

11.14 Problems 707

Chapter 12 Linearized Supersonic Flow 709

12.1 Introduction 710

12.2 Derivation of the Linearized Supersonic Pressure Coefficient Formula 710

12.3 Application to Supersonic Airfoils 714

12.4 Viscous Flow：Supersonic Airfoil Drag 720

12.5 Summary 723

12.6 Problems 724

Chapter13 Introduction to Numerical Techniques for Nonlinear Supersonic Flow 725

13.1 Introduction：Philosophy of Computational Fluid Dynamics 726

13.2 Elements of the Method of Characteristics 728

13.2.1 Internal Points 734

13.2.2 Wall Points 735

13.3 Supersonic Nozzle Design 736

13.4 Elements of Finite-Difference Methods 739

13.4.1 Predictor Step 745

13.4.2 Corrector Step 745

13.5 The Time-Dependent Technique：Application to Supersonic Blunt Bodies 746

13.5.1 Predictor Step 750

13.5.2 Corrector Step 750

13.6 Summary 754

13.7 Problem 754

Chapter 14 Elements of Hypersonic Flow 757

14.1 Introduction 758

14.2 Qualitative Aspects of Hypersonic Flow 759

14.3 Newtonian Theory 763

14.4 The Lift and Drag of Wings at Hypersonic Speeds：Newtonian Results for a Flat Plate at Angle of Attack 767

14.4.1 Accuracy Considerations 774

14.5 Hypersonic Shock-Wave Relations and Another Look at Newtonian Theory 778

14.6 Mach Number Independence 782

14.7 Hypersonics and Computational Fluid Dynamics 784

14.8 Summary 787

14.9 Problems 787

PART4 Viscous Flow 789

Chapter 15 Introduction to the Fundamental Principles and Equations of Viscous Flow 791

15.1 Introduction 792

15.2 Qualitative Aspects of Viscous Flow 793

15.3 Viscosity and Thermal Conduction 801

15.4 The Navier-Stokes Equations 806

15.5 The Viscous Flow Energy Equation 810

15.6 Similarity Parameters 814

15.7 Solutions of Viscous Flows：A Prelimina ryDiscussion 818

15.8 Summary 821

15.9 Problems 823

Chapter16 Some Special Cases； Couette and Poiseuille Flows 825

16.1 Introduction 825

16.2 Couette Flow：General Discussion 826

16.3 Incompressible （Constant Property）Couette Flow 830

16.3.1 Negligible Viscous Dissipation 836

16.3.2 Equal Wall Temperatures 837

16.3.3 Adiabatic Wall Conditions （Adiabatic Wall Temperature） 839

16.3.4 Recovery Factor 842

16.3.5 Reynolds Analogy 843

16.3.6 Interim Summary 844

16.4 Compressible Couette Flow 846

16.4.1 Shooting Method 848

16.4.2 Time-Dependent Finite-Difference Method 850

16.4.3 Results for Compressible Couette Flow 854

16.4.4 Some Analytical Considerations 856

16.5 Two-Dimensional Poiseuille Flow 861

16.6 Summary 865

16.6.1 Couette Flow 865

16.6.2 Poiseuille Flow 865

Chapter 17 Introduction to Boundary Layers 867

17.1 Introduction 868

17.2 Boundary-Layer Properties 870

17.3 The Boundary-Layer Equations 876

17.4 How Do We Solve the Boundary-Layer Equations？ 879

17.5 Summary 881

Chapter 18 Laminar Boundary Layers 883

18.1 Introduction 883

18.2 Incompressible Flow over a Flat Plate：The Blasius Solution 884

18.3 Compressible Flow over a Flat Plate 891

18.3.1 A Comment on Drag Variation with Velocity 902

18.4 The Reference Temperature Method 903

18.4.1 Recent Advances：The Meador-Smart Reference Temperature Method 906

18.5 Stagnation Point Aerodynamic Heating 907

18.6 Boundary Layers over Arbitrary Bodies：Finite-Difference Solution 913

18.6.1 Finite-Difference Method 914

18.7 Summary 919

18.8 Problems 920

Chapter 19 Turbulent Boundary Layers 921

19.1 Introduction 922

19.2 Results for Turbulent Boundary Layers on a Flat Plate 922

19.2.1 Reference Temperature Method for Turbulent Flow 924

19.2.2 The Meador-Smart Reference Temperature Method for Turbulent Flow 926

19.2.3 Prediction of Airfoil Drag 927

19.3 Turbulence Modeling 927

19.3.1 The Baldwin-Lomax Model 928

19.4 Final Comments 930

19.5 Summary 931

19.6 Problems 932

Chapter 20 Navier-Stokes Solutions：Some Examples 933

20.1 Introduction 934

20.2 The Approach 934

20.3 Examples of Some Solutions 935

20.3.1 Flow over a Rearward-Facing Step 935

20.3.2 Flow over an Airfoil 935

20.3.3 Flow over a Complete Airplane 938

20.3.4 Shock-Wave/Boundary-Layer Interaction 939

20.3.5 Flow over an Airfoil with a Protuberance 940

20.4 The Issue of Accuracy for the Prediction of Skin Friction Drag 942

20.5 Summary 947

Appendix A Isentropic Flow Properties 949

Appendix B Normal Shock Properties 955

Appendix C Prandtl-Meyer Function and Mach Angle 959

Appendix D Standard Atmosphere，SI Units 963

Appendix E Standard Atmosphere，English Engineering Units 973

Bibliography 981

Index 987