UNDERSTANDING STATISTICS IN THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES 7TH EDITIONPDF电子书下载

Part one OVERVIEW 1

CHAPTER 1 Statistics and Scientific Method 3

Introduction 3

Methods of Knowing 4

Definitions 6

An Overall Example：Mode of Presentation and Retention 7

Scientific Research and Statistics 9

Random Sampling 9

Descriptive and Inferential Statistics 10

Using Computers in Statistics 10

Statistics and the “Real World” 11

WHAT IS THE TRUTH？Data，Data，Where Are the Data？ 12

WHAT IS THE TRUTH？Authorities Are Nice，But… 13

WHAT IS THE TRUTH？Data，Data，What Are the Data？-1 14

WHAT IS THE TRUTH？Data，Data，What Are the Data？-2 15

Summary 17

Important Terms 17

Questions and Problems 17

Web Connection 20

Part two DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 21

CHAPTER 2 Basic Mathematical and Measurement Concepts 23

Study Hints for the Student 23

Mathematical Notation 24

Summation 25

Measurement Scales：Nominal，Ordinal，Interval，and Ratio Scales 27

Nominal Scales 27

Ordinal Scales 28

Interval Scales 29

Ratio Scales 29

Measurement Scales in the Behavioral Sciences 31

Continuous and Discrete Variables 31

Real Limits of a Continuous Variable 32

Significant Figures 33

Rounding 34

Summary 35

Important Terms 35

Questions and Problems 35

Notes 36

Web Connection 37

CHAPTER 3 Frequency Distributions 38

Introduction：Ungrouped Frequency Distributions 38

Grouping Scores 40

Constructing a Frequency Distribution of Grouped Scores 41

Relative Frequency，Cumulative Frequency，and Cumulative Percentage Distributions 45

Percentiles 46

Computation of Percentile Points 47

Percentile Rank 50

Computation of Percentile Rank 50

Graphing Frequency Distributions 53

The Bar Graph 53

The Histogram 55

The Frequency Polygon 56

The Cumulative Percentage Curve 56

Shapes of Frequency Curves 57

Exploratory Data Analysis 58

Stem and Leaf Diagrams 58

WHAT IS THE TRUTH？Stretch the Scale，Change the Tale 60

Summary 62

Important Terms 62

Questions and Problems 62

Web Connection 65

CHAPTER 4 Measures of Central Tendency and Variability 66

Introduction 66

Measures of Central Tendency：Arithmetic Mean，Median，and Mode 67

The Arithmetic Mean 67

The Overall Mean 70

The Median 72

The Mode 74

Measures of Central Tendency and Symmetry 75

Measures of Variability：Range，Standard Deviation，and Variance 76

The Range 76

The Standard Deviation 76

The Variance 82

Summary 82

Important Terms 82

Questions and Problems 82

Notes 85

Web Connection 85

CHAPTER 5 The Normal Curve and Standard Scores 86

Introduction 86

The Normal Curve 87

Area Contained Under the Normal Curve 88

Standard Scores （z Scores） 88

Characteristics of z Scores 91

Finding Areas Corresponding to Any Raw Score 92

Finding the Raw Score Corresponding to a Given Area 97

Summary 100

Important Terms 100

Questions and Problems 100

Web Connection 102

CHAPTER 6 Correlation 103

Introduction 103

Relationships 104

Linear Relationships 104

Positive and Negative Relationships 107

Perfect and Imperfect Relationships 108

Correlation 111

The Linear Correlation Coefficient Pearson r 112

Other Correlation Coefficients 120

Effect of Range on Correlation 124

Effect of Extreme Score 125

Correlation Does Not Imply Causation 125

WHAT IS THE TRUTH？“Good Principal = Good Elementary School，” or Does It？ 126

Summary 127

Important Terms 128

Questions and Problems 128

Web Connection 133

CHAPTER 7 Linear Regression 134

Introduction 134

Prediction and Imperfect Relationships 135

Constructing the Least-Squares Regression Line：Regression of Y on X 137

Regression of X on Y 143

Measuring Prediction Errors：The Standard Error of Estimate 146

Considerations in Using Linear Regression for Prediction 149

Relation Between Regression Constants and Pearson r 150

Multiple Regression and Multiple Correlation 151

Summary 155

Important Terms 156

Questions and Problems 156

Web Connection 158

Part three INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 159

CHAPTER 8 Random Sampling and Probability 161

Introduction 161

Random Sampling 162

Techniques for Random Sampling 164

Sampling With or Without Replacement 165

Probability 166

Some Basic Points Concerning Probability Values 167

Computing Probability 167

The Addition Rule 168

The Multiplication Rule 173

Multiplication and Addition Rules 183

Probability and Normally Distributed Continuous Variables 186

WHAT IS THE TRUTH？“Not Guilty，I’m a Victim of Coincidence”：Gutsy Plea or Truth？ 189

WHAT IS THE TRUTH？Sperm Count Decline-Male or Sampling Inadequacy？ 190

WHAT IS THE TRUTH？A Sample of a Sample 191

Summary 193

Important Terms 193

Questions and Problems 193

Notes 196

Web Connection 196

CHAPTER 9 Binomial Distribution 197

Introduction 197

Definition and Illustration of the Binomial Distribution 197

Generating the Binomial Distribution from the Binomial Expansion 200

Using the Binomial Table 202

Summary 211

Important Terms 211

Questions and Problems 211

Notes 213

Web Connection 213

CHAPTER 10 Introduction to Hypothesis Testing Using the Sign Test 214

Introduction 214

An Experiment：Marijuana and the Treatment of AIDS Patients 215

Repeated Measures Design 217

Alternative Hypothesis （H1） 218

Null Hypothesis （H0） 218

Decision Rule （α Level） 218

Evaluating the Marijuana Experiment Using the Binomial Distribution 219

Type Ⅰ and Type Ⅱ Errors 220

Alpha Level and the Decision Process 221

Evaluating the Tail of the Distribution 223

One-and Two-Tailed Probability Evaluations 225

Size of Effect：Significant Versus Important 232

WHAT IS THE TRUTH？Chance or Real Effect-1？ 232

WHAT IS THE TRUTH？Chance or Real Effect-2？ 234

WHAT IS THE TRUTH？“No Product Is Better Than Our Product” 235

WHAT IS THE TRUTH？Anecdotal Reports Versus Systematic Research 236

Summary 238

Important Terms 239

Questions and Problems 239

Notes 242

Web Connection 242

CHAPTER 11 Power 243

Introduction 243

What Is Power？ 244

Pnull and Preal 244

Preal：A Measure of the Size and Direction of the Real Effect 245

Power Analysis of the AIDS Experiment 246

Effect of N and Size of Real Effect 247

Power and Beta （β） 251

Power and Alpha （α） 252

Alpha-Beta and Reality 253

Interpreting Nonsignificant Results 253

Calculation of Power 254

WHAT IS THE TRUTH？Astrology and Science 259

Summary 261

Important Terms 261

Questions and Problems 261

Notes 262

Web Connection 262

CHAPTER 12 Sampling Distributions，Sampling Distribution of the Mean，the Normal Deviate （z） Test 263

Introduction 263

Sampling Distributions 264

Generating Sampling Distributions 264

The Normal Deviate （z） Test 268

An Experiment：Evaluating the Reading Program at the Local Public Schools 268

Sampling Distribution of the Mean 268

The Reading Proficiency Experiment Revisited 275

Alternative Solution Using zobt and the Critical Region for Rejection of H0 277

Conditions Under Which the z Test Is Appropriate 282

Power and the z Test 282

Summary 290

Important Terms 290

Questions and Problems 290

Web Connection 292

CHAPTER 13 Student’s t Test for Single Samples 293

Introduction 293

Comparison of the z and t Tests 294

An Experiment：Technique for Increasing Early Speaking in Children 294

The Sampling Distribution of t 295

Degrees of Freedom 296

t and z Distributions Compared 297

First Word Utterances Experiment Revisited 298

Calculating tobt from Original Scores 299

Conditions Under Which the t Test Is Appropriate 304

t Distribution：Confidence Intervals for the Population Mean 304

Construction of the 95onfidence Interval 305

Example：Estimating the Mean IQ of Professors at a University 306

General Equations for Any Confidence Interval 307

Testing the Significance of Pearson r 309

Summary 312

Important Terms 313

Questions and Problems 313

Notes 315

Web Connection 316

CHAPTER 14 Student’s t Test for Correlated and Independent Groups 317

Introduction 318

Student’s t Test for Correlated Groups 319

An Experiment：Brain Stimulation and Eating 319

Comparison Between the t Test for Correlated Groups and the t Test for Single Samples 320

Brain Stimulation Experiment Revisited and Analyzed 321

t Test for Correlated Groups and Sign Test Compared 326

Assumptions Underlying the t Test for Correlated Groups 327

z and t Tests for Independent Groups 327

Independent Groups Design 327

z Test for Independent Groups 328

An Experiment：Hormone X and Sexual Behavior 328

The Sampling Distribution of the Difference Between Sample Means （X1-X2） 329

An Experiment：Hormone X Experiment Revisited 330

Student’s t Test for Independent Groups 331

Comparing the Equations for zobt and tobt 331

Analyzing the Hormone X Experiment with the t Test for Independent Groups 333

Calculating tobt When n1 = n2 334

Assumptions Underlying the t Test for Independent Groups 338

Violation of the Assumptions of the t Test for Independent Groups 339

Size of Effect 339

Power of the t Test 341

Correlated Groups and Independent Groups Designs Compared 342

Summary 345

Important Terms 346

Questions and Problems 347

Notes 352

Web Connection 353

CHAPTER 15 Introduction to the Analysis of Variance 354

Introduction：The F Distribution 354

F Test and the Analysis of Variance （ANOVA） 356

Overview of the One-Way Analysis of Variance Technique 357

Within-Groups Variance Estimate，s W2 359

Between-Groups Variance Estimate，s B2 360

The F Ratio 362

Analyzing Data with the ANOVA Technique 362

An Experiment：Different Situations and Stress 362

Logic Underlying the One-Way ANOVA 366

The Relationship Between the Analysis of Variance and the t Test 370

Example：Dating—Sorority Versus Dormitory Women 370

Assumptions Underlying the Analysis of Variance 372

Size of Effect 373

Power of the Analysis of Variance 373

Power and N 374

Power and the Real Effect of the Independent Variable 374

Power and Sample Variability 374

WHAT IS THE TRUTH？Much Ado About Almost Nothing 375

Summary 376

Important Terms 377

Questions and Problems 377

Web Connection 380

CHAPTER 16 Multiple Comparisons 381

Introduction 381

A Priori，or Planned，Comparisons 382

A Posteriori，or Post Hoc，Comparisons 384

The Tukey Honestly Significant Difference （HSD） Test 385

The Newman-Keuls Test 386

HSD and Newman-Keuls Tests with Unequal n 391

Comparison Between Planned Comparisons，Tukey’s HSD，and the Newman-Keuls Tests 391

Summary 392

Important Terms 392

Questions and Problems 393

Notes 393

Web Connection 394

CHAPTER 17 Introduction to Two-Way Analysis of Variance 395

Introduction to the Two-Way Analysis of Variance-Qualitative Presentation 395

Quantitative Presentation of the Two-Way Analysis of Variance 399

Within-Cells Variance Estimate （sw2） 400

Row Variance Estimate （sR 2） 402

Column Variance Estimate （sC2） 404

Row × Column Variance Estimate （sRC2） 405

Computing F Ratios 406

Analyzing an Experiment with Two-Way ANOVA 406

An Experiment：Effect of Exercise on Sleep 406

Interpreting the Results 410

Multiple Comparisons 420

Assumptions Underlying the Two-Way ANOVA 421

Summary 421

Important Terms 422

Questions and Problems 422

Web Connection 424

CHAPTER 18 Chi-Square and Other Nonparametric Tests 425

Introduction：Distinction Between Parametric and Nonparametric Tests 426

Chi-Square （x2） 427

Single Variable Experiments 427

An Experiment：Preference for Different Brands of Light Beer 427

Test of Independence Between Two Variables 431

An Experiment：Political Affiliation and Attitude 432

Assumptions Underlying x2 440

The Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Signed Ranks Test 441

An Experiment：Promoting More Favorable Attitudes Toward Wildlife Conservation 441

Assumptions of the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test 444

The Mann-Whitney U Test 444

An Experiment：The Effect of a High-Protein Diet on Intellectual Development 444

Tied Ranks 448

Assumptions Underlying the Mann-Whitney U Test 450

The Kruskal-Wallis Test 450

An Experiment：Evaluating Two Weight Reduction Programs 450

Assumptions Underlying the Kruskal-Wallis Test 454

WHAT IS THE TRUTH？Statistics and Applied Social Research-Useful or “Abuseful”？ 455

Summary 457

Important Terms 458

Questions and Problems 458

Notes 464

Web Connection 464

CHAPTER 19 Review of Inferential Statistics 465

Introduction 465

Terms and Concepts 466

Process of Hypothesis Testing 467

Single Sample Designs 468

z Test for Single Samples 468

t Test for Single Samples 469

t Test for Testing the Significance of Pearson r 469

Two-Condition Experiments：Correlated Groups Design 470

t Test for Correlated Groups 470

Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Signed Ranks Test 471

Sign Test 471

Independent Groups Design：Two Groups 472

t Test for Independent Groups 472

Mann-Whitney U Test 473

Multigroup Experiments 474

One-Way Analysis of Variance，F Test 474

One-Way Analysis of Variance，Kruskal-Wallis Test 477

Two-Way Analysis of Variance，F Test 477

Two-Way Analysis of Variance，F Test 478

Analyzing Nominal Data 479

Chi-Square Test 479

Choosing the Appropriate Test 480

Questions and Problems 482

Web Connection 488

Appendixes 489

A.Review of Prerequisite Mathematics 491

B.Equations 501

C.Answers to End-of-Chapter Questions and Problems 509

D.Tables 524

Glossary 549

Index 552