Part one OVERVIEW 1
CHAPTER 1 Statistics and Scientific Method 3
Introduction 3
Methods of Knowing 4
Definitions 6
An Overall Example：Mode of Presentation and Retention 7
Scientific Research and Statistics 9
Random Sampling 9
Descriptive and Inferential Statistics 10
Using Computers in Statistics 10
Statistics and the “Real World” 11
WHAT IS THE TRUTH？Data，Data，Where Are the Data？ 12
WHAT IS THE TRUTH？Authorities Are Nice，But… 13
WHAT IS THE TRUTH？Data，Data，What Are the Data？-1 14
WHAT IS THE TRUTH？Data，Data，What Are the Data？-2 15
Summary 17
Important Terms 17
Questions and Problems 17
Web Connection 20
Part two DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 21
CHAPTER 2 Basic Mathematical and Measurement Concepts 23
Study Hints for the Student 23
Mathematical Notation 24
Summation 25
Measurement Scales：Nominal，Ordinal，Interval，and Ratio Scales 27
Nominal Scales 27
Ordinal Scales 28
Interval Scales 29
Ratio Scales 29
Measurement Scales in the Behavioral Sciences 31
Continuous and Discrete Variables 31
Real Limits of a Continuous Variable 32
Significant Figures 33
Rounding 34
Summary 35
Important Terms 35
Questions and Problems 35
Notes 36
Web Connection 37
CHAPTER 3 Frequency Distributions 38
Introduction：Ungrouped Frequency Distributions 38
Grouping Scores 40
Constructing a Frequency Distribution of Grouped Scores 41
Relative Frequency，Cumulative Frequency，and Cumulative Percentage Distributions 45
Percentiles 46
Computation of Percentile Points 47
Percentile Rank 50
Computation of Percentile Rank 50
Graphing Frequency Distributions 53
The Bar Graph 53
The Histogram 55
The Frequency Polygon 56
The Cumulative Percentage Curve 56
Shapes of Frequency Curves 57
Exploratory Data Analysis 58
Stem and Leaf Diagrams 58
WHAT IS THE TRUTH？Stretch the Scale，Change the Tale 60
Summary 62
Important Terms 62
Questions and Problems 62
Web Connection 65
CHAPTER 4 Measures of Central Tendency and Variability 66
Introduction 66
Measures of Central Tendency：Arithmetic Mean，Median，and Mode 67
The Arithmetic Mean 67
The Overall Mean 70
The Median 72
The Mode 74
Measures of Central Tendency and Symmetry 75
Measures of Variability：Range，Standard Deviation，and Variance 76
The Range 76
The Standard Deviation 76
The Variance 82
Summary 82
Important Terms 82
Questions and Problems 82
Notes 85
Web Connection 85
CHAPTER 5 The Normal Curve and Standard Scores 86
Introduction 86
The Normal Curve 87
Area Contained Under the Normal Curve 88
Standard Scores （z Scores） 88
Characteristics of z Scores 91
Finding Areas Corresponding to Any Raw Score 92
Finding the Raw Score Corresponding to a Given Area 97
Summary 100
Important Terms 100
Questions and Problems 100
Web Connection 102
CHAPTER 6 Correlation 103
Introduction 103
Relationships 104
Linear Relationships 104
Positive and Negative Relationships 107
Perfect and Imperfect Relationships 108
Correlation 111
The Linear Correlation Coefficient Pearson r 112
Other Correlation Coefficients 120
Effect of Range on Correlation 124
Effect of Extreme Score 125
Correlation Does Not Imply Causation 125
WHAT IS THE TRUTH？“Good Principal = Good Elementary School，” or Does It？ 126
Summary 127
Important Terms 128
Questions and Problems 128
Web Connection 133
CHAPTER 7 Linear Regression 134
Introduction 134
Prediction and Imperfect Relationships 135
Constructing the Least-Squares Regression Line：Regression of Y on X 137
Regression of X on Y 143
Measuring Prediction Errors：The Standard Error of Estimate 146
Considerations in Using Linear Regression for Prediction 149
Relation Between Regression Constants and Pearson r 150
Multiple Regression and Multiple Correlation 151
Summary 155
Important Terms 156
Questions and Problems 156
Web Connection 158
Part three INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 159
CHAPTER 8 Random Sampling and Probability 161
Introduction 161
Random Sampling 162
Techniques for Random Sampling 164
Sampling With or Without Replacement 165
Probability 166
Some Basic Points Concerning Probability Values 167
Computing Probability 167
The Addition Rule 168
The Multiplication Rule 173
Multiplication and Addition Rules 183
Probability and Normally Distributed Continuous Variables 186
WHAT IS THE TRUTH？“Not Guilty，I’m a Victim of Coincidence”：Gutsy Plea or Truth？ 189
WHAT IS THE TRUTH？Sperm Count Decline-Male or Sampling Inadequacy？ 190
WHAT IS THE TRUTH？A Sample of a Sample 191
Summary 193
Important Terms 193
Questions and Problems 193
Notes 196
Web Connection 196
CHAPTER 9 Binomial Distribution 197
Introduction 197
Definition and Illustration of the Binomial Distribution 197
Generating the Binomial Distribution from the Binomial Expansion 200
Using the Binomial Table 202
Summary 211
Important Terms 211
Questions and Problems 211
Notes 213
Web Connection 213
CHAPTER 10 Introduction to Hypothesis Testing Using the Sign Test 214
Introduction 214
An Experiment：Marijuana and the Treatment of AIDS Patients 215
Repeated Measures Design 217
Alternative Hypothesis （H1） 218
Null Hypothesis （H0） 218
Decision Rule （α Level） 218
Evaluating the Marijuana Experiment Using the Binomial Distribution 219
Type Ⅰ and Type Ⅱ Errors 220
Alpha Level and the Decision Process 221
Evaluating the Tail of the Distribution 223
One-and Two-Tailed Probability Evaluations 225
Size of Effect：Significant Versus Important 232
WHAT IS THE TRUTH？Chance or Real Effect-1？ 232
WHAT IS THE TRUTH？Chance or Real Effect-2？ 234
WHAT IS THE TRUTH？“No Product Is Better Than Our Product” 235
WHAT IS THE TRUTH？Anecdotal Reports Versus Systematic Research 236
Summary 238
Important Terms 239
Questions and Problems 239
Notes 242
Web Connection 242
CHAPTER 11 Power 243
Introduction 243
What Is Power？ 244
Pnull and Preal 244
Preal：A Measure of the Size and Direction of the Real Effect 245
Power Analysis of the AIDS Experiment 246
Effect of N and Size of Real Effect 247
Power and Beta （β） 251
Power and Alpha （α） 252
Alpha-Beta and Reality 253
Interpreting Nonsignificant Results 253
Calculation of Power 254
WHAT IS THE TRUTH？Astrology and Science 259
Summary 261
Important Terms 261
Questions and Problems 261
Notes 262
Web Connection 262
CHAPTER 12 Sampling Distributions，Sampling Distribution of the Mean，the Normal Deviate （z） Test 263
Introduction 263
Sampling Distributions 264
Generating Sampling Distributions 264
The Normal Deviate （z） Test 268
An Experiment：Evaluating the Reading Program at the Local Public Schools 268
Sampling Distribution of the Mean 268
The Reading Proficiency Experiment Revisited 275
Alternative Solution Using zobt and the Critical Region for Rejection of H0 277
Conditions Under Which the z Test Is Appropriate 282
Power and the z Test 282
Summary 290
Important Terms 290
Questions and Problems 290
Web Connection 292
CHAPTER 13 Student’s t Test for Single Samples 293
Introduction 293
Comparison of the z and t Tests 294
An Experiment：Technique for Increasing Early Speaking in Children 294
The Sampling Distribution of t 295
Degrees of Freedom 296
t and z Distributions Compared 297
First Word Utterances Experiment Revisited 298
Calculating tobt from Original Scores 299
Conditions Under Which the t Test Is Appropriate 304
t Distribution：Confidence Intervals for the Population Mean 304
Construction of the 95onfidence Interval 305
Example：Estimating the Mean IQ of Professors at a University 306
General Equations for Any Confidence Interval 307
Testing the Significance of Pearson r 309
Summary 312
Important Terms 313
Questions and Problems 313
Notes 315
Web Connection 316
CHAPTER 14 Student’s t Test for Correlated and Independent Groups 317
Introduction 318
Student’s t Test for Correlated Groups 319
An Experiment：Brain Stimulation and Eating 319
Comparison Between the t Test for Correlated Groups and the t Test for Single Samples 320
Brain Stimulation Experiment Revisited and Analyzed 321
t Test for Correlated Groups and Sign Test Compared 326
Assumptions Underlying the t Test for Correlated Groups 327
z and t Tests for Independent Groups 327
Independent Groups Design 327
z Test for Independent Groups 328
An Experiment：Hormone X and Sexual Behavior 328
The Sampling Distribution of the Difference Between Sample Means （X1-X2） 329
An Experiment：Hormone X Experiment Revisited 330
Student’s t Test for Independent Groups 331
Comparing the Equations for zobt and tobt 331
Analyzing the Hormone X Experiment with the t Test for Independent Groups 333
Calculating tobt When n1 = n2 334
Assumptions Underlying the t Test for Independent Groups 338
Violation of the Assumptions of the t Test for Independent Groups 339
Size of Effect 339
Power of the t Test 341
Correlated Groups and Independent Groups Designs Compared 342
Summary 345
Important Terms 346
Questions and Problems 347
Notes 352
Web Connection 353
CHAPTER 15 Introduction to the Analysis of Variance 354
Introduction：The F Distribution 354
F Test and the Analysis of Variance （ANOVA） 356
Overview of the One-Way Analysis of Variance Technique 357
Within-Groups Variance Estimate，s W2 359
Between-Groups Variance Estimate，s B2 360
The F Ratio 362
Analyzing Data with the ANOVA Technique 362
An Experiment：Different Situations and Stress 362
Logic Underlying the One-Way ANOVA 366
The Relationship Between the Analysis of Variance and the t Test 370
Example：Dating—Sorority Versus Dormitory Women 370
Assumptions Underlying the Analysis of Variance 372
Size of Effect 373
Power of the Analysis of Variance 373
Power and N 374
Power and the Real Effect of the Independent Variable 374
Power and Sample Variability 374
WHAT IS THE TRUTH？Much Ado About Almost Nothing 375
Summary 376
Important Terms 377
Questions and Problems 377
Web Connection 380
CHAPTER 16 Multiple Comparisons 381
Introduction 381
A Priori，or Planned，Comparisons 382
A Posteriori，or Post Hoc，Comparisons 384
The Tukey Honestly Significant Difference （HSD） Test 385
The Newman-Keuls Test 386
HSD and Newman-Keuls Tests with Unequal n 391
Comparison Between Planned Comparisons，Tukey’s HSD，and the Newman-Keuls Tests 391
Summary 392
Important Terms 392
Questions and Problems 393
Notes 393
Web Connection 394
CHAPTER 17 Introduction to Two-Way Analysis of Variance 395
Introduction to the Two-Way Analysis of Variance-Qualitative Presentation 395
Quantitative Presentation of the Two-Way Analysis of Variance 399
Within-Cells Variance Estimate （sw2） 400
Row Variance Estimate （sR 2） 402
Column Variance Estimate （sC2） 404
Row × Column Variance Estimate （sRC2） 405
Computing F Ratios 406
Analyzing an Experiment with Two-Way ANOVA 406
An Experiment：Effect of Exercise on Sleep 406
Interpreting the Results 410
Multiple Comparisons 420
Assumptions Underlying the Two-Way ANOVA 421
Summary 421
Important Terms 422
Questions and Problems 422
Web Connection 424
CHAPTER 18 Chi-Square and Other Nonparametric Tests 425
Introduction：Distinction Between Parametric and Nonparametric Tests 426
Chi-Square （x2） 427
Single Variable Experiments 427
An Experiment：Preference for Different Brands of Light Beer 427
Test of Independence Between Two Variables 431
An Experiment：Political Affiliation and Attitude 432
Assumptions Underlying x2 440
The Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Signed Ranks Test 441
An Experiment：Promoting More Favorable Attitudes Toward Wildlife Conservation 441
Assumptions of the Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test 444
The Mann-Whitney U Test 444
An Experiment：The Effect of a High-Protein Diet on Intellectual Development 444
Tied Ranks 448
Assumptions Underlying the Mann-Whitney U Test 450
The Kruskal-Wallis Test 450
An Experiment：Evaluating Two Weight Reduction Programs 450
Assumptions Underlying the Kruskal-Wallis Test 454
WHAT IS THE TRUTH？Statistics and Applied Social Research-Useful or “Abuseful”？ 455
Summary 457
Important Terms 458
Questions and Problems 458
Notes 464
Web Connection 464
CHAPTER 19 Review of Inferential Statistics 465
Introduction 465
Terms and Concepts 466
Process of Hypothesis Testing 467
Single Sample Designs 468
z Test for Single Samples 468
t Test for Single Samples 469
t Test for Testing the Significance of Pearson r 469
Two-Condition Experiments：Correlated Groups Design 470
t Test for Correlated Groups 470
Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Signed Ranks Test 471
Sign Test 471
Independent Groups Design：Two Groups 472
t Test for Independent Groups 472
Mann-Whitney U Test 473
Multigroup Experiments 474
One-Way Analysis of Variance，F Test 474
One-Way Analysis of Variance，Kruskal-Wallis Test 477
Two-Way Analysis of Variance，F Test 477
Two-Way Analysis of Variance，F Test 478
Analyzing Nominal Data 479
Chi-Square Test 479
Choosing the Appropriate Test 480
Questions and Problems 482
Web Connection 488
Appendixes 489
A.Review of Prerequisite Mathematics 491
B.Equations 501
C.Answers to End-of-Chapter Questions and Problems 509
D.Tables 524
Glossary 549
Index 552