SET-OFF DEFENCES IN INTERNATIONAL COMMERCAI ARBITRAION A COMPARATIVE ANALYSISPDF电子书下载

Introduction 1

1 Key Aspects of Set-off 7

Ⅰ Definition 7

Ⅱ Significance and Functions of Set-off 9

A Set-off as a Means of Economic Efficiency 9

B Set-off as an Equitable Instrument 10

C Set-off Providing Security 11

Ⅲ Significance of Set-off in Modern Business Life 12

A Set-off Agreements in Banking Law 12

B Importance of Unilateral Set-off 13

Ⅳ Modern Problems with Set-off 14

A Jurisdictional Questions 14

B Choice-of-law Questions 18

Ⅴ Terminology 19

A 'Set-off' Versus 'Compensatio' 19

B 'Set-off' Versus 'Counterclaim' 20

C 'Cross-claim; 'Cross-demand; and'Counter-demand' 22

2 Set-off in a Comparative Survey 23

Ⅰ Incipiencies: Roman Law 23

A Introduction 23

B Development 24

C Operation of Set-off in Roman Law—The Various Stages 26

i Iudicia Bonae Fidei 26

ii Iudicia Stricti Iuris 28

iii Special Cases 29

iv Set-off Under Justinian 30

a Development of the Roman Post-classical Judicial System 30

b Ex officio Compensatio? 31

The Dispute over 'Ipso Iure Compensatur' 31

The Significance of the Ipso Iure-Dispute in the 21st Century 32

c Allegation of Fact or Submission of Claim? 33

d The Requirement of Ascertained Claims('Liquidity') as a Tool of Discretion 34

e Connectivity and Similarity of Claim and Cross-claim? 34

D Observations and Comments 35

i Set-off as a Procedural Mechanism in(Pre-)Classic Roman Law 35

ii Set-off Asserted in Court: Assertion of a Countervailing Right or Assertion of a Fact? 36

iii Judicial Discretion 36

iv Summary and Outlook 37

Ⅱ Set-off in the Romanic Legal Systems 37

A Historical Development 38

i Introduction 38

ii Customary Law 39

iii Canon Law 42

iv Written Law 43

v Summary 43

B Set-off Under the Code Civil (CompensationLégale) 45

i Operation Ipso Iure? 45

ii Requirements 47

a Ascertainment of Claims (Liquidity) 47

Uncertainties Regarding the Degree of Ascertainment 47

Uncertainties Regarding the Relevant Point in Time 49

b Reciprocity 50

c Similarity of Obligations 51

d Enforceability of Primary Claim and Cross-claim 52

e Set-off Must Not Be Excluded by Law or by Agreement 53

f The Role of Connectivity of Primary Claim and Cross-claim 54

iii Effect of Legal Set-off 55

iv Summary 55

C Set-off by Agreement (Compensation Conventionelle) 56

D Judicial Set-off (Compensation Judiciaire) =Counterclaim 56

E Set-off in the Avant-Projet Catala 58

F Set-off in Other Romanic Legal Systems 59

i Overview 59

ii Automatic Extinction of Concurring Debts 59

iii Ascertainment of Claims 61

G Summary 61

Ⅲ Set-off in the Germanic Legal Systems 62

A Historical Development 63

B Set-off in the German Codification 65

i Operation by Extra-judicial Declaration 66

a Principal Rule 66

b Set-off Declaration in Court(Prozessaufrechnung) 66

Set-off Brought in Court as an Allegation of Fact 66

Set-off Brought in Court as an Assertion of a Right 67

ii Requirements of Set-off 69

a Reciprocity 69

b Similarity of Obligations 70

c Validity, Maturity, and Enforceability of Cross-claim 72

The Principle 72

Statute of Limitations 72

Enforceability of Cross-claim Only 73

d Obstacles to Set-off 74

e Ascertainment of the Cross-claim? 75

f Connectivity of Primary Claim and Cross-claim? 76

g Interplay of Ascertainment and Connectivity of Claims 77

iii Retroactive Effect of Set-off 78

C Set-off in Switzerland 79

i Historical Development 79

ii Operation by Extra-judicial Declaration 81

a Principal Rule 81

b Set-off Declaration in Judicial Proceedings(Prozessaufrech ung) 81

iii Requirements 82

a Reciprocity 82

Principal Rule 82

Exceptions 83

b Similarity of Obligations 84

Money Debts 84

Other Obligations 85

c Validity, Maturity, and Enforceability of Cross-claim 85

d Obstacles to Set-off 87

e Not Required: Ascertainment and Connectivity of Claims 87

iv Retroactive Effect of Set-off 89

D Summary of German and Swiss Law of Set-off 89

E Set-off in Austria 90

i Introduction 90

ii Set-off ipso iure? 91

iii Requirements 92

a General Overview 92

b In Particular: Ascertainment of Cross-claim Required? 94

iv Effect of Set-off 95

v Summary 95

F Jurisdictions with Similar Set-off Concepts 97

G Set-off by Agreement 97

H Counterclaim 98

I Summary 99

Ⅳ Set-off in England and English-based Jurisdictions 100

A Statutory Set-off 101

i History 101

ii Operation 102

iii Requirements 103

a Mutuality 103

b Money Debts 104

c Ascertainment of Claims 105

d Maturity and Limitation 106

e Obstacles to Set-off 106

f Not Required: Connectivity 107

iv Effect of Statutory Set-off 108

v Summary 108

B Abatement 109

i Historical Development 109

ii Scope of Application 110

iii Connectivity 110

iv Ascertainment of Claims 111

v Operation 111

vi Summary and Practical Significance 111

C Equitable Set-off 112

i Introduction 112

ii Operation 113

iii Requirements 114

a General Prerequisites; 'Arising Out of the Same Transaction' 114

b The 'Equity' Element 115

c Ascertainment of Claims 116

d The 'Equity Element' and Liquidity as Discretionary Instruments 116

iv Effect 117

D Relevance of Court Rules 117

i Mere Regulation of Practice and Procedure 117

ii Misunderstandings in Case Law 118

E Contractual Set-off 120

F Counterclaim 121

G Summary 121

Ⅴ Comparative Analysis 123

A Set-off as a Mainly Substantive Instrument 123

B Broad Spectrum of Complex Rules 124

i Different Operation Mechanisms 124

a The ipso iure Operation 125

b The Self-help or Declaration Mechanism 125

c The Judicial Mechanism 126

ii Requirements of Set-off in Comparison 126

iii Possible Effects of Set-off 127

C Conclusions 127

3 Set-off in the Conflict of Laws 129

Ⅰ.Determination of the Applicable Law in International Arbitration 129

A Development and Current Theories 129

i Application of the Lex Loci Arbitri 129

ii Application of the Conflict of Laws Rules Which the Tribunal Considers Appropriate 131

a Development 131

b Application of the Choice-of-law Rules at the Seat of Arbitration 132

c Cumulative Application of All Conflicts Rules Involved in the Dispute 133

d Application of'General Principles of Private International Law' 133

iii Application of the (Substantive) Law Which the Tribunal Considers Appropriate 134

a The Principle 134

b Application of a Specific National Law 135

c Application of More Than One National Law ( tronc commun) 135

d Application of A-National Rules of Law 135

B Comparison of Law-determination Methods in Arbitration and State Court Proceedings 136

Ⅱ Law-determination for Set-off in Classic Conflict of Laws 138

A Application of the Lex Fori 139

i England 140

ii United States 141

B Application of the Law of the Primary Claim 142

i Switzerland 142

a Principal Rule 142

b Primary Claim Arising Out of a Contract 143

c Primary Claim Not Arising Out of a Contract 143

ii EC-Regulation on the Law Applicable to Contracts (Rome Ⅰ) 144

C Cumulative Approach 146

i Introduction 146

ii The Original Concept and Its Variations 148

D Other Models 150

i Application of the Law of the Claim Which Existed First 150

ii Application of the Law of the Claim Which Arose Second 150

iii Application of the Lex Loci Solutionis 151

iv Application of the More Set-off Friendly Law 151

Ⅲ Criteria for a Suitable Rule to Determine the Law Applicable to a Set-off in International Arbitration 152

A Respecting Party Autonomy 153

B Ensuring Predictability 153

C Eliminating the Possibility of Manipulative Tactics 153

D Enhancing Practicability 154

E Providing Comprehensiveness 154

F Avouching Appropriateness 154

i 'Appropriateness' in Classic International Contract Law—European Traditionalism and American Theories 154

ii 'Appropriateness' of Choice-of-Law Rules in International Arbitration 157

iii 'Appropriateness' with Regard to Choice-of-Law Rules for Set-off in International Arbitration 158

a Choice-of-law Fairness Considerations in the Traditional Conflicts Rules 158

b Possible Fairness Considerations When Determining the Law in International Arbitration 158

Introduction 158

Functions of Set-off 158

Implications 159

Ⅳ Discussion of Classic Choice-of-Law Rules With Regard to Set-off 160

A The Lex Fori/Lex Loci Arbitri Approach Under Scrutiny 161

i Practicability 161

a In State Court Proceedings 161

b In International Arbitration 162

ii Predictability 163

iii Avoidance of Using Tactics 163

iv Appropriateness? 164

v Summary 166

B The Primary Claim Approach Under Scrutiny 167

i Predictability and Practicability? 167

a Depending on Contingencies 167

b Appropriate for Other Set-off Concepts? 168

Judicially Operating Set-off 168

Ipso iure Set-off 169

c Aspects Governed by the Primary Claim's Law 170

d Foreign Law of Set-off Partially Settled in Substantive and Partially in Procedural Law 171

ii Elimination of Manipulation? 172

iii Appropriateness 172

iv Summary 173

C The Cumulative Approach Under Scrutiny 174

i Introduction 174

ii Practicability 175

iii Predictability and Elimination of Manipulative Tactics 175

iv Appropriateness 176

D The Theory of Applying the Law of the Claim Which Existed First Under Scrutiny 177

E The Doctrine of Applying the Law of the Claim Which Arose Second Under Scrutiny 177

F The Application of the Lex Loci Solutionis Under Scrutiny 178

G The Proposal to Apply the More Set-off Friendly Law Under Scrutiny 178

H Conclusions 179

Ⅴ Other Choice-of-Law Solutions in International Arbitration 180

A The Cumulative Application of Conflicts Rules 180

B The Tronc Commun Approach 182

C Application of A-National Law 183

i Introduction 183

ii The ICC Case No 3540 of 1980 184

D Discussion of the Tronc Commun Approach and the Application of A-National Law 185

i Appropriateness 185

a Undisguised Consideration of Substantive Appropriateness Criteria 185

b Avoidance of 'Nationalisation' of the Dispute 186

ii Practicability, Predictability and Avoidance of Manipulation Tactics 188

a 'Ad Hoc Distillation' of Similarities Versus One Unvarying General Principle of Set-off as the Basic Question 188

b Advantages of Ad Hoc Distillation 188

c Disadvantages ofAd Hoc Distillation 188

ICC Case No 5971: an Illustrative Example 188

Temptation to Oversimplify 190

Temptation to Misinterpret 190

d Progressive Summary 191

e Advantages of Advanced Voie Directe 191

f Disadvantages of Advanced Voie Directe 192

g Summary 194

E Fleshing Out a Uniform Set-off Concept 194

i The 'Creeping' Codification of General Principles 194

ii Overview of Laws and Sets of Rules Based on Comparative Analysis 198

a UNIDROIT Principles (PICC), Principles of European Contract Law (PECL), and Draft Common Frame of Reference(DCFR) 198

Introduction 198

Operation of Set-off 200

Requirements 201

Similarity 201

Reciprocity 201

Performability of the Primary Claim, Maturity of the Cross-claim 202

Exclusion and Waiver of the Right of Set-off 203

Liquidity and Connectivity 203

Effect 204

b The Principles of the Gandolfi Group 204

c The Netherlands NBW 205

iii Comparative Analysis 206

a Operation of Set-off 206

b Similarity, Reciprocity, Enforceability of the Claims 206

c Exclusion of Set-off 208

d Liquidity and Connectivity 209

e Effects of Set-off 211

f Results 213

Ⅵ Summary 214

4 Conclusions 216

5 Final Summary 219

Bibliography 229

Index 249