The Practice of Research in Criminology and Criminal JusticePDF电子书下载

1 Science, Society, and Criminological Research 1

Reasoning About the Social World 2

Questions and Answers 3

Everyday Errors in Reasoning 3

OvergeneraLization 4

SeLective or Inaccurate Observation 4

Illogical Reasoning 5

Resistance to Change 6

The Social Science Approach 8

Motives for Criminological Research 8

Social CriminoLogical Research in Practice 9

Description: How Prevalent Is Youth VioLence? 10

ExpLoration: How Do SchooLs Respond to Gun Violence? 11

ExpLanation: What Factors Are Related to Youth DeLinquency and VioLence? 12

EvaLuation: Do VioLence Prevention Programs in SchooLs Work? 13

Strengths and Limitations of Social Research 13

Types of Research Methods 15

Quantitative and Qualitative Methods 16

Conclusion 17

KEY TERMS 18

HIGHLIGHTS 18

EXERCISES 18

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 19

WEB EXERCISES 19

ETHICS EXERCISES 19

SPSS OR EXCEL EXERCISES 20

2 The Process and Problems of Criminological Research 21

Criminological Research Questions 22

Identifying Criminological Research Questions 23

Refining Criminological Research Questions 24

Evaluating Criminological Research Questions 24

FeasibiLity 24

SociaL Importance 25

Scientific ReLevance 25

Social Research Foundations 26

Finding Information 26

Reviewing Research 27

A Single-Article Review: Formal and Informal Deterrents to Domestic Violence 28

An Integrated Literature Review: When Does Arrest Matter? 29

The Rote of Criminological Theory 32

Social Research Strategies 35

Explanatory Research 36

Deductive Research 36

Inductive Research 38

Domestic Violence and the Research Circle 39

Phase 1: Deductive Research 39

Phase 2: Deductive Research 40

Phase 3: Inductive Research 41

Phase 4: Deductive Research 42

Exploratory Research 43

A Qualitative Exploration of the Response to Domestic Violence 43

Descriptive Research 44

Social Research Goals 44

Measurement Validity 45

Generalizability 45

Causal Validity 46

Authenticity 47

Conclusion 47

KEY TERMS 48

HIGHLIGHTS 48

EXERCISES 49

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 49

WEB EXERCISES 50

ETHICS EXERCISES 51

SPSS OR EXCEL EXERCISES 51

3 Research Ethics and Philosophies 52

Historical Background 55

Ethical Principles 58

Achieving VaLid ResuLts 58

Honesty and Openness 59

Protecting Research Participants 60

Avoid Harming Research Participants 62

Obtain Informed Consent 63

Avoid Deception in Research, Except in Limited Circumstances 68

Maintain Privacy and Confidentiality 68

The Uses of Research 70

Social Research Philosophies 71

Positivism and Postpositivism 72

Positivist Research Guidelines 72

A Positivist Research Goal: Advancing Knowledge 73

Interpretivism and Constructivism 74

Interpretivist/Constructivist Research Guidelines 76

An Interpretivist Research Goal: Creating Change 76

An Integrated Philosophy 77

Conclusions 78

KEY TERMS 79

HIGHLIGHTS 79

EXERCISES 80

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 80

WEB EXERCISES 81

SPSS OR EXCEL EXERCISES 81

4 Conceptualization and Measurement 82

Concepts 83

Conceptualization in Practice 84

Defining Youth Gangs 84

Defining Substance Abuse 84

Defining Community Policing 86

Defining Poverty 87

Defininq Strain 87

Concepts and Variables 88

Measurement Operations 88

Using Available Data 89

Constructing Questions 90

Making Observations 91

Collecting Unobtrusive Measures 92

Combining Measurement Operations 92

Evaluation of Measures 93

Measurement Validity 93

Face Validity 94

Content Validity 95

Criterion Validity 95

Construct Validity 95

Reliability 96

Test-Retest Reliability 97

Interitem Reliability (Internal Consistency) 97

Alternate-Forms Reliability 97

Interobserver Reliability 98

Ways to Improve Reliability and Validity 98

Levels of Measurement 100

Nominal Level of Measurement 100

Ordinal Level of Measurement 101

Interval Level of Measurement 103

Ratio Level of Measurement 103

The Case of Dichotomies 104

Comparison of LeveLs of Measurement 104

ConcLusion 105

KEY TERMS 106

HIGHLIGHTS 106

EXERCISES 107

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 107

WEB EXERCISES 108

ETHICS EXERCISES 108

SPSS OR EXCEL EXERCISES 108

5 SampLing 109

SampLe PLanning 110

Define Sample Components and the PopuLation 110

EvaLuate Generatizabitity 112

Assess Population Diversity 115

Consider a Census 117

SampLing Methods 117

Probability Sampling Methods 119

Simple Random SampLing 120

Systematic Random SampLing 123

Stratified Random SampLing 123

Multistage Cluster Sampling 125

Nonprobability Sampling Methods 127

Availability Sampling 127

Quota Sampling 128

Purposive or Judgment Sampling 129

Snowball SampLing 131

Lessons About SampLe QuaLity 132

SampLing Distributions 133

Estimating Sampling Error 134

Units of AnaLysis and Errors in Causal Reasoning 138

Individual and Group Units of AnaLysis 138

The Ecological Fallacy and Reductionism 139

ConcLusion 141

KEY TERMS 141

HIGHLIGHTS 142

EXERCISES 143

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 144

WEB EXERCISES 144

ETHICS EXERCISES 145

SPSS OR EXCEL EXERCISES 145

6 Causation and Research Design 146

Causal Explanation 147

Nomothetic Causal ExpLanation 147

Idiographic Causal ExpLanation 149

Research Designs and Criteria for Causal Explanations 150

Case Study: Media Violence and Violent Behavior 151

Association 151

Time Order 152

Nonspuriousness 152

Mechanism 153

Context 154

Research Designs and Causality 155

True Experiments 155

CausaLity and True Experimental Designs 155

Field Experiments: Determining the Effect of Incarceration on Employment 156

Nonexperimental Designs 157

Cross-SectionaL Designs 158

Case Study Using Life Calendars: Do Offenders Specialize in Different Crimes? 160

Longitudinal Designs 160

Repeated Cross-SectionaL Designs 161

Fixed-Sample Panel Designs 162

Case Study: Offending Over the Life Course 163

Event-Based Designs 164

Causality in Nonexperimental Designs 165

Conclusion 169

KEY TERMS 169

HIGHLIGHTS 170

EXERCISES 170

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 171

WEB EXERCISES 171

ETHICS EXERCISES 172

SPSS OR EXCEL EXERCISES 172

7 Experimental Designs 174

True Experiments 175

Experimental and Comparison Groups 175

Pretest and Posttest Measures 176

Random Assignment 176

Case Study: Prison Classification and Inmate Behavior 180

Case Study: The Effects of Counsel at Bail Hearings 181

Quasi-Experiments 182

Nonequivalent Control Group Designs 183

Case Study: The Effectiveness of Drug Courts 183

Before-and-After Designs 184

Case Study: The Effects of the Youth Criminal Justice Act 184

Ex Post Facto Control Group Designs 186

Case Study: Does an Arrest Increase Delinquency? 186

Validity in Experiments 187

Causal (Internal) VaLidity 188

Selection Bias 188

Endogenous Change 189

External Events 190

Contamination 190

Treatment Misidentification 191

GeneralizabiLity 192

Sample Generalizability 192

Factorial Surveys 193

External Validity 195

Interaction of Testing and Treatment 195

Ethical Issues in Experimental Research 196

Deception 196

Selective Distribution of Benefits 197

Conclusion 198

KEY TERMS 198

HIGHLIGHTS 199

EXERCISES 200

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 200

WEB EXERCISES 201

ETHICS EXERCISES 201

SPSS OR EXCEL EXERCISES 202

8 Survey Research 203

Survey Research in the Social Sciences 204

Attractive Features of Survey Research 205

Versatility 205

Efficiency 205

Generalizability 206

The Omnibus Survey 206

Questionnaire Development and Assessment 207

Maintain Consistent Focus 207

Build on Existing Instruments 208

Case Study: Measuring Violent Victimizations 208

Writing Questions 208

Write Clear and Meaningful Questions 210

Avoid Confusing Phrasing 213

Avoid Vagueness 213

Avoid Negatives and Double Negatives 213

Avoid Double-Barreled Questions 214

Avoid Making Either Disagreement or Agreement Disagreeable 215

Additional Guidelines for Fixed-Response Questions 215

Response Choices Should Be Mutually Exclusive 216

Make the Response Categories Exhaustive 216

Utilize Likert-Type Response Categories 217

Minimize Fence-Sitting and Floating 217

Utilize Filter Questions 218

Combining Questions in Indexes 218

Demographic Questions 224

Don't Forget to Pretest! 226

Organization of the Questionnaire 227

Survey Designs 231

Mailed, Self-Administered Surveys 232

Group-Administered Surveys 233

Surveys by Telephone 234

Reaching Sampling Units 234

Maximizing Response to Phone Surveys 235

In-Person Interviews 238

Balancing Rapport and Control 238

Maximizing Response to Interviews 239

Web Surveys 240

Mixed-Mode Surveys 241

A Comparison of Survey Designs 242

Ethical Issues in Survey Research 245

Protection of Respondents 245

Confidentiality 245

Conclusion 247

KEY TERMS 248

HIGHLIGHTS 248

EXERCISES 249

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 249

WEB EXERCISES 250

ETHICS EXERCISES 251

SPSS OR EXCEL EXERCISES 251

9 Quatitative Methods and Analysis: Observing,Participating, and Listening 252

Fundamentats of Quatitative Methods 253

Origins of Qualitative Research 256

Case Study: Life in a Gang 256

Participant Observation 257

Choosing a Rote 258

Complete Observation 258

Participation and Observation 260

Covert Participation 261

Entering the Field 263

Developing and Maintaining Relationships 264

Sampling People and Events 265

Taking Notes 267

Managing the Personal Dimensions 270

Systematic Observation 271

Case Study: Studying Public Disorder and Crime 271

Intensive Interviewing 275

Establishing and Maintaining a Partnership 276

Asking Questions and Recording Answers 277

Combining Participant Observation and Intensive Interviewing 278

Focus Groups 279

Combining Focus Groups With Official Records:An Analysis of Police Searches 280

Analysis of Qualitative Data 281

Documentation 283

Conceptualization, Coding, and Categorizing 283

Examining ReLationships and Displaying Data 285

Authenticating Conclusions 286

Reflexivity 287

Alternatives in Qualitative Data Analysis 288

Ethnography 288

Ethnomethodology 289

Qualitative Comparative Analysis 290

Narrative Analysis 291

Conversation Analysis 292

Case-Oriented Understanding 292

Grounded Theory 293

Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis 294

Ethical Issues in Qualitative Research 297

Conclusion 300

KEY TERMS 300

HIGHLIGHTS 300

EXERCISES 301

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 302

WEB EXERCISES 303

ETHICS EXERCISES 303

SPSS OR EXCEL EXERCISES 304

10 Analyzing Content: Historical, Secondary,and Content Analysis and Crime Mapping 305

Analyzing Secondary Data 306

Case Study: Gender and Offending 307

Historical Events Research 308

Case Study: The MartinsviUe Seven 310

Comparative Methods 311

Case Study: Studying Homicide Across Nations 311

Content Analysis 314

Identifying a Population of Documents or Other Textual Sources 314

Case Study: Media Representations of Crime 315

Crime Mapping 318

Case Study: Social Disorganization and the Chicago School 320

Case Study: Gang Homicides in St. Louis 320

Case Study: Using Google Earth to Track Sexual Offending Recidivism 322

Methodological Issues When Using Secondary Data 325

Measuring Across Contexts 326

Sampling Across Time and Place 327

Identifying Causes 328

Combining Research Designs 329

Comparing Research Designs 329

Triangulating Research Designs 331

Triangulation in Action: American Indian Homicide 331

Case Study: Adding Qualitative Data to Official JuveniLe Records 333

Ethical Issues When Analyzing Available Data and Content 335

Conclusion 336

KEY TERMS 336

HIGHLIGHTS 336

EXERCISES 337

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 337

WEB EXERCISES 338

ETHICS EXERCISES 339

SPSS OR EXCEL EXERCISES 339

11 Evaluation and Policy Analysis 340

A Brief History of EvaluaUon Research 341

Evaluation Basics 343

Evaluation Alternatives 345

The Evaluation of Need, or Needs Assessment 347

Evaluability Assessment 347

Process Evaluation (Program Monitoring) 348

Case Study: Evaluating the D.A.R.E. Program 349

The Evaluation of Impact or Outcomes 350

The Evaluation of Efficiency 353

Case Study: Cost-Benefit Analysis of Therapeutic Communities 354

Design Decisions 355

Black Box Evaluation or Program Theory 355

Researcher or Stakeholder Orientation 356

Simple or Complex Outcomes 358

EvaLuation in Action 359

Case Study: Problem-Oriented Policing in Violent Crime Areas—A Randomized Controlled Experiment 359

Strengths of Randomized Experimental Design in Impact EvaLuations 362

Quasi-ExperimentaL Designs in EvaLuation Research 362

Case Study: Boot Camps 363

Case Study: Mandatory Sentencing Laws 365

Nonexperimental Designs 366

Case Study: Vocational Education for Serious Juvenile Offenders—A One-Shot Design 366

Qualitative and Quantitative Methods 367

Increasing Demand for Evidence-Based Policy 369

Meta-Analyses 370

Case Study: The Effectiveness of Anti-Bullying Programs 371

Basic Science or Applied Research 373

Ethics in Evaluation 374

Conclusion 376

KEY TERMS 376

HIGHLIGHTS 377

EXERCISES 377

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 378

WEB EXERCISES 378

ETHICS EXERCISES 379

SPSS OR EXCEL EXERCISES 379

12 Quantitative Data Analysis 380

Introducing Statistics 381

Case Study: The Causes of Delinquency 382

Preparing Data for Analysis 384

Displaying Univariate Distributions 386

Graphs 387

Frequency Distributions 391

Ungrouped Data 392

Grouped Data 393

Summarizing Univariate Distributions 397

Measures of Central Tendency 397

Mode 397

Median 398

Mean 402

Median or Mean? 403

Measures of Variation 405

Range 406

Interquartile Range 406

Variance 407

Standard Deviation 408

Cross-Tabulating Variables 408

Describing Association 410

Controlling for a Third Variable 413

Intervening Variables 414

Extraneous Variables 415

Specification 418

Analyzing Data Ethically: How Not to Lie About Relationships 419

Conclusion 420

KEY TERMS 420

HIGHLIGHTS 421

EXERCISES 421

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 422

WEB EXERCISES 422

ETHICS EXERCISES 423

SPSS OR EXCEL EXERCISES 423

13 Reporting Research Results 424

Research Report Goats 425

Advance Scientific Knowledge 425

Shape Social Poticy 426

Organize Social Action—Participatory Action Research 426

Case Study: Seeking Higher Education for Inmates 427

DiaLogue With Research Subjects 427

On Writing Research 428

Research Report Types 429

Student Papers and Theses 429

Group Projects 430

The Thesis Committee 430

Journal Articles 430

Applied Reports 432

An Advisory Committee 432

Data Displays 433

Ethics and Reporting 436

Communicating With the Public 437

Plagiarism 438

Conctusion 439

KEY TERMS 440

HIGHLIGHTS 440

EXERCISES 441

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL 441

WEB EXERCISES 442

ETHICS EXERCISES 442

SPSS OR EXCEL EXERCISES 442