环境法 第4版PDF电子书下载

PART Ⅰ AN INTRODUCTION TO THE LAW 1

CHAPTER 1 The American Legal System: The Source of Environmental Law 3

Sources of Law 3

The Legislative Branch as a Source of Statutory Law 3

The Judicial Branch as a Source of Case Law 8

The Executive Branch as a Source of Law 10

Administrative Agencies as a Source of Law 11

Public and Private Law 12

Criminal Law and Civil Law 12

Case and Statutory Law 12

Classifications of Law 12

Constitutional Principles Underlying the American Legal System 25

Federalism 25

Federal Preemption 26

The Commerce Clause 26

The Fourth Amendment 29

The Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments 30

A Constitutional Right to Environmental Protection? 35

Concluding Remarks 38

Questions for Review and Discussion 38

For Further Reading 39

On the Internet 39

Notes 40

Controversial Issues 42

Criticisms of the Adversary System 43

An Introduction to the Adversary System 43

The Adversary System 43

CHAPTER 2 The Litigation Process and Other Tools for Resolving Environmental Disputes 43

The U.S. Dual Court System 44

The Federal Court System 44

The State Court System 46

Choice of Courts 46

Primary Actors in the Legal System 50

The Attorney 50

The Judge 51

The Jurv 52

Steps in Civil Litigation 53

The Threshold Issues 53

Pretrial 58

The Trial 62

Appellate Procedure 65

Alternatives to Civil Litigation 66

Arbitration 67

Mediation 68

Concluding Remarks 70

Questions for Review and Discussion 71

For Further Reading 71

On the Internet 72

Notes 72

Controversial Issues 73

CHAPTER 3 Administrative Law and Its Impact on the Environment 75

Creation of Administrative Agencies 75

Rule Making 76

Functions of Administrative Agencies 76

Adjudication 81

Administrative Activities 84

Limitations on Agency Powers 85

Statutory Limitations 85

Institutional Limitations 86

Important Agencies Affecting the Environment 89

Executive versus Independent Agencies 89

The Environmental Protection Agency 90

Hybrid Agencies 90

Interagency Cooperation 96

The Department of the Interior and Its Agencies 98

The Department of Agriculture and Its Agencies 100

The Department of Labor and Its Agencies 100

Concluding Remarks 101

Questions for Review and Discussion 101

For Further Reading 101

Notes 102

On the Internet 102

Controversial Issues 104

PART Ⅱ THE ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS 105

CHAPTER 4 An Introduction to Environmental Law and Policy 107

The Need for Regulation 107

Tragedy of the Commons 107

Free Rider Problem 108

Pollution as an Externality 108

Environmental Ethic 109

Tort Law 110

Alternative Ways to Control Pollution 110

Subsidies, Emissions Charges, and Marketable Emissions Permits 112

Green Taxes 113

Direct Regulation 114

Evolution of Our Environmental Policy 114

The Origins of Our Environmental Policy 114

The 1970s: The Environmental Decade 115

The Early 1990s 116

The 1980s 116

An Increasing Use of Market Forces 117

The Middle to Late 1990s 119

The Beginning of the 21st Century 121

National Environmental Policy Act 122

Council on Environmental Quality 122

Environmental Impact Statement(EIS) 124

Alternatives to the EIS 130

Effectiveness of NEPA 132

Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 132

Concluding Remarks 135

Questions for Review and Discussion 135

For Further Reading 135

On the Internet 136

Notes 136

Controversial Issues 138

Sulfur Dioxide 139

The Major Air Pollutants 139

CHAPTER 5 Air-Quality Control 139

Nitrogen Oxides 140

Carbon Monoxide 141

Ozone 143

Particulates 143

Lead 144

Airborne Toxins 144

Some Significant Air-Quality Problems 144

Acid Deposition 144

Depletion of the Ozone Layer 146

Human-Induced Climate Change 147

Indoor Pollution 151

The Initial Approach to Air-Quality Control 152

The Current Approach to Air Quality Control 155

National Ambient Air Quality Standards 156

No Significant Deterioration(NSD) 159

New Source Performance Standards 160

Mobile Source Performance Standards 162

The 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments 164

1990 Air Toxins Program 164

Acid Rain Control Program 166

Enforcement of the 1990 Act 168

Solutions Beyond the Clean Air-Act 168

Concluding Remarks 169

Questions for Review and Discussion 169

On the Internet 170

For Further Reading 170

Notes 171

Controversial Issues 174

CHAPTER 6 Water-Quality Control 175

The Major Water Pollutants 175

Pathogens 176

Conventional Organics 177

Toxic Trace Organics 178

Heavy Metals 179

Nutrients 179

Ionizing Radiation 180

Other Measures 180

Some Significant Water-Quality Problems 181

Trace Levels of Toxic Organics 181

Lead and Copper 182

Radon and Other Radionuclides 183

Protecting Water Through Government Actions 184

Water Rights 184

Protecting the Waters of the Nation 187

Protecting Drinking Water 193

Concluding Remarks 197

Questions for Review and Discussion 198

For Further Reading 198

On the Internet 198

Notes 199

Controversial Issues 200

CHAPTER 7 Controlling Toxic Substances 201

Identification of Potentially Toxic Substances 201

Scientific Uncertainty 202

Risk Assessment 203

Federal Regulation of Toxic Substances 205

Toxic Substances Control Act 207

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act 210

Food Quality Protection Act 215

Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act 215

Progress Under the Acts 217

International Regulation of Toxic Substances 217

Rotterdam Convention 218

Toxic Torts 219

Theories of Recovery 219

Problems in Establishing Causation 220

Enterprise Liability 222

Punitive Damages 223

Questions for Review and Discussion 224

Concluding Remarks 224

For Further Reading 225

On the Internet 225

Notes 225

Controversial Issues 227

CHAPTER 8 Waste Management and Hazardous Releases 229

Waste Control Techniques 229

The Problem with Waste 230

Municipal Solid Waste 234

Requirements for Managing Waste 234

Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984 235

Hazardous Waste 236

Enforcement of RCRA 241

CERCLA: An Overview 243

Emergency Response Plans and Right to Know 244

Federal Response to Contaminated Sites 246

Removal Action 247

Remedial Response 248

Brownfields 252

Underground Storage Tank Program 253

Concluding Remarks 255

Questions for Review and Discussion 255

For Further Reading 256

On the Internet 257

Notes 257

Controversial Issues 259

The Crisis Begins 261

CHAPTER 9 Energy 261

Energy Policy: A Historical Overview 261

A Return to Complacency 263

A Bright Spot: The Energy Policy Act 263

A Voluntary Energy Policy 265

What Now? 267

Energy Consumption and Production 269

Coal: The Oldest Energy Source 271

Problems with Coal 272

Regulation of the Mining Industry 273

Petroleum and Natural Gas 275

Onshore Development Problems 275

Offshore Development Problems 276

Oil Spills 277

Nuclear Energy 279

History of Nuclear Energy Development 279

Problems with Nuclear Energy 280

Regulation of the Nuclear Industry 282

Hydropower 282

Renewable Fuels 283

Solar Energy 284

Wind Energy 286

Biomass Energy 286

Geothermal Energy 286

For Further Reading 287

Questions for Review and Discussion 287

Hydrogen Fuel 287

Concluding Remarks 287

On the Internet 288

Notes 288

Controversial Issues 291

CHAPTER 10 Natural Resources 293

Protecting Public Lands 293

Forests 293

Regulation of Public Lands 295

Rangelands 295

Wetlands, Estuaries, and Coastal Areas 298

Benefits of Wetlands 300

Destruction of Wetlands 300

Regulations to Preserve Coastal Areas, Estuaries, and Wetlands 301

Protection of the Great Lakes 306

Wild and Scenic Rivers System 307

Endangered Species 307

The Global Extinction Crisis 312

Questions for Review and Discussion 314

Concluding Remarks 314

For Further Reading 315

On the Internet 315

Notes 315

Controversial Issues 317

CHAPTER 11 International Environmental Law 319

The Need for International Environmental Law 319

Overpopulation 319

Loss of Biological Diversity 321

The Global Commons 322

Environmental Disasters and Transboundary Pollution 323

The Nature of International Law 324

Sources of International Environmental Law 324

Conventional Law 324

Customary Law 325

Institutions That Effectuate and Influence International Environmental Law 327

United Nations 327

World Bank 329

Global Environment Facility 330

European Union 331

Addressing Specific International Environmental Problems 332

Transboundary Pollution 332

Choice of Forums 336

The Global Commons 337

Preservation of Biological Diversity 344

Rio Summit 347

The Future of International Environmental Law 347

Environmentalism and Trade 349

Concluding Remarks 352

Questions for Review and Discussion 353

For Further Reading 353

On the Internet 354

Notes 354

Controversial Issues 357

Appendix: Abbreviations and Acronyms 359

Index 362