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PREFACE Deng Fuquan and Yang Zaizhong 1

CHAPTER ONE ANCIENT SOCIETY OF TIBET 9

Section One Origin of the Tibetan People and the Development of Tibet by Ancient Tibetans 9

1．The Rising of the Tibetan Land-Mass and the Formation of Its Natural Environment 9

2．Origin of the Tibetan Ethnic Group and the Distribution of Its Population 14

3．The Development of Tibet by Ancestors of Various Ethnic Groups 24

Section Two Tibet Before the Establishment of the Tubo Regime 31

1．The Blending of the Qiang and Tibetan Tribes at the Turn of the Qin to Han Dynasties 31

2．Tibetan Tribes in the Period of the Wei,the Jin and the Southern and Northern Dynasties 38

3．The Rise of the Pugyal Tribe in the Yarlung Valley 42

4．The Rise and Fall of the Bon Religion,the Primitive Religion of Tibet 50

CHAPTER TWO THE TUBO DYNASTY OF THE TIBETAN SLAVE-OWNING SYSTEM 55

Section One The Establishment of the Tubo Dynasty 55

1．Songtsen Gampo Unifies Tibet 55

2．Tubo Makes Rasa Its Capital 59

3．Economic Prosperity of the Tubo 65

Section Two Relations Between the Tubo and the Tang 73

1．Tang-Tubo Marriage Alliances and Princess Wencheng's Going to Tibet 73

2．The Expansion of the Tubo and the War Between the Tang and Tubo 79

3．Tang-Tubo Peace Pledge,Setting of the Boundary Line and Friendly Relations 85

Section Three The Decline of the Tubo Dynasty and the Rise of Buddhism in Tibet 92

1．The Fall of the Tubo Dynasty 92

2．Separatist Regimes in Tibet During the Song and Liao Dynasties 98

3．Formation of the Various Sects of Tibetan Buddhism 106

CHAPTER THREE THE MERGING OF TIBET INTO CHINA IN THE YUAN DYNASTY AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF FEUDAL SERF SYSTEM 114

Secfion One The Yuan Government Merges Tibet into China 114

1．Tibet Gives Allegiance to the Mongolian Khanate 114

2．The Merging of Tibet into China 120

Section Two The Administration of Tibet by the Yuan Government 127

1．The Establishment of Xuanzheng-yuan 127

2．The Establishment of the System of Imperial Preceptor 131

3．The Administrative Divisions of Tibet 138

4．The Relationship Between the Sakya Local Regime and the Yuan Government 142

Section Three Feudal Serfdom of Tibet During the Yuan Period 148

1．The Establishment of the Feudal Serfdom 148

2．Economic Features of Tibetan Feudal Serfdom 152

3．Economic and Cultural Exchanges Between the Hans,Mongols and Tibetans During the Yuan Dynasty 156

CHAPTER FOUR THE TIBETAN AREAS IN THE MING AND EARLY OING DYNASTIES 163

Section One Ming Government's Administration of the Tibetan Areas 163

1．Establishment of an Administrative System over the Tibetan Areas in China by the Ming Government 163

2．The Tibetan Policy of the Ming Court 169

3．The Succession of the Tibetan Phagmodrupa(Desi)Local Regime 175

4．Apogee of the Tibetan Serf Economy and the Exchange of Tibetan Horses for Han Tea 181

Section Two The Reign and Administrative Reform of the Early Qing Dynasty in Tibet 185

1．The Establishment and Consolidation of the Qing's Rule over Tibet 185

2．The Gurkhas'Invasions and the Tibetans'Counterattack 193

3．Administrative Reforms Carried Out in Tibet by the Qing Government 198

4．Strengthening of Tibet's Border Defense 204

Section Three The Rise of the Gelug Sect in the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties 208

1．The Establishment of the Gelug Sect by Tsongkhapa 208

2．The Establishment of the Dalai Lama Lineage and Confirmation by the Central Government 214

3．The Establishment of the Panchen Lama Lineage and Confirmation by the Central Government 225

4．The Influence Exerted by the Gelug Sect over Tibetan Society 234

CHAPTER FIVE TIBETAN PEOPLE STAND AGAINST WESTERN POWERS'INVASION 241

Section One The Invasion of Western Influences and the Opening of Tibet's Door 241

1．Western Powers'Invasion of the Countries South of the Himalayas 241

2．The First-Phase Invasion of Tibet by Western Powers 245

3．The Fatuous Qing Court and the Opening of the Gate of Tibet 250

4．Britain and Russia Contend over Tibet 257

Section Two The Tibetans'First Struggle Against the British Invasion 263

1．British-Indian Aggressive Forces Deliberately Cause Border Disputes 263

2．Tibetan Soldiers and Civilians Heroically Fight Back on Mount Lengtu 269

3．Two Unequal Treaties Signed 273

Section Three The Tibetans'Second Struggle Against the British Invasion 277

1．Tibet's Lax Border Defense and the British Scheme to Split Tibet 277

2．The Battle of Gyangze and the Fall of Lhasa 283

3．The Signing of the Treaty of Lhasa 291

Section Four New Qing Policies Toward the End of the Qing Dynasty and the Bankruptcy of the British Plot to Split Tibet 294

1．Qing Government's New Policies for the Administration of Tibet 294

2．The Qing Government Makes Arrangements for Implementing the New Policies 299

3．British Scheme to Split Tibet and the Dalai Lama's Exile 309

4．The Qing Government's Influence in Tibet Withers Away 314

CHAPTER SIX TIBET UNDER SEMI-COLONIAL STATUS IN THE PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC OF CHINA 319

Section One The Beiyang Government's Rule in Tibet During the Early Period of the Republic of China 319

1．Dr. Sun Yat-sen's"Republicanism of Five Ethnic Groups"and the Tibetan Situation During the Early Period of the Republic of China 319

2．Beiyang Government Army's Expedition to Tibet and the Wars on the Sichuan Border 326

3．The Simla Conference and the Position of the Beiyang Government 336

Section Two The National Government's Administration over Tibet 344

1．The Establishment of the Commission of Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs and the Resident Tibet Office in Nanjing 344

2．The National Government's Handling of the Civil War Between Xikang and Tibet 353

3．The National Government's Mediation of the Contradictions Between the Dalai and Panchen Factions 365

4．The National Government's Resistance Against British and American Activities to Split Tibet from China 382

Section Three Anti-Imperialist and Anti-Feudal Struggle of the Tibetan People in the New-Democratic Revolution 390

1．The Red Army Passes Through Tibetan Areas and Its Influence 390

2．Role of Tibetan Soldiers and People in the Movement Against Japanese Invasion and for National Salvation 404

3．Tibetan People's Struggle Against the Serf System 410

CHAPTER SEVEN PEACEFUL LIBERATION AND BIRTH OF NEW TIBET 416

Section One Peaceful Liberation of Tibet 416

1．The Founding of New China Opens the Path to the Liberation of the Tibetan People 416

2．Imperialists'Plot to Obstruct the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet 420

3．Conclusion of the"Agreement on Measures for the Peaceful Liberation of Tibet" 430

4．The People's Liberation Army Enters Tibet 436

Section Two Democratic Reform and the Steady Development of Tibet 440

1．The Central People's Government's Principle of "Exercising Prudence and Making Steady Progress" 440

2．Victory of Quelling the Armed Rebellion 449

3．The Launching of the Democratic Reform 455

4．Counterattack in Self-defense on the Sino-Indian Border 462

Section Three The Realization of Regional National Minorities Autonomy in Tibet 468

1．The Policy of Regional National Minorities Autonomy of the Communist Party of China 468

2．Official Establishment of the Tibet Autonomous Region 470

3．The Training of Tibetan Cadres 472

4．Implementation of Various Policies Concerning Regional National Minorities Autonomy 475

Section Four Struggle for a Socialist New Tibet 478

1．The Tibetan People Embark on the Socialist Road 478

2．The Tibetan People Cure the Wounds Made by the "Cultural Revolution" 483

3．The Reform and Opening in Tibet 488

4．New Economical and Social Developments in Tibet and Their Prospects 497

POSTSCRIPT 503

APPENDICES 504

1．A Sketch Map of Tibet in the Yuan Dynasty 504

2．A Sketch Map of Tibet in the Period of the Republic of China 505

3．A Sketch Map of the Tibet Autonomous Region 506

4．The Dalai Lamas 507

5．The Panchen Erdenis 508