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UNIT Ⅰ STARTING POINT 3

Chapter One Writing as a Process of Discovery 3

INVENTING IDEAS AND DETAILS 3

Free Writing 4

Brainstorming and Listing 6

Clustering 8

Cubing 10

Asking Questions 11

Dramatizing 13

UNDERSTANDING THE WRITING PROCESS 16

Chapter Two Rhetoric as the Art of Prose Writing 20

THE WORD RHETORIC 20

THE RHETORICAL CONTEXTS IN WRITING 24

Finding a Subject 24

Defining Your Audience 27

Considering Your Purpose 29

UNIT Ⅱ STYLE 35

Chapter Three Sentence Choice for Clarity 35

THE WRITER'S OPTION:DICTION AND SYNTAX 39

SENTENCE COMBINING 40

Ambiguous Construction 45

THE WAY GRAMMAR WORKS 48

The Noun Phrase 48

The Verb Phrase 52

The Verb Tense 54

The Sentence Base 55

Choosing Predication 60

Coordination 61

Subordination 63

Actor-Action Pattern 64

REVISING SENTENCES EFFECTIVELY 68

Chapter Four Sentence Expansion 74

SENTENCES EXPANDED BY SUBORNATE CLAUSES 75

The Grammar of Relative Clauses 77

The Grammar of Adverbial Clauses 81

SENTENCES EXPANDED BY FREE MODIFIERS 87

The Free Apositive Phrase 98

The Free Participial Phrase 102

The Free Absolute Phrase 107

Other Free Modifiers 110

Chapter Five Variation for Style 114

IMMITATION AND STYLE 118

THE RHYTHMS OF WRITING 120

Parallelism 121

The Balanced Sentence 124

Antithesis 125

THE ELASTICITY OF THE SENTENCE 127

Deletion 128

Expansion 129

THE EXPLOSIVENESS OF MEANING 132

Sentence Periodic or Loose 132

The Inverted Sentence 135

Climax and Anticlimax 137

The Rhetorical Question 139

UNIT Ⅲ WORDS,WORDS,WORDS 145

Chapter Six Words and Their Meanings 145

SYMBOLS AND REFERENTS 145

Abstract and Concrete 146

General and Specific 148

General and Specific Statements 150

DENOTATION AND CONNOTATION 153

LITERAL AND FIGURATIVE 157

Metaphor and Simile 158

Tenor and Vehicle 159

Decay of Metaphors 162

Chapter Seven Figures of Speech 168

Analogy 168

Personification and Pathetic Fallacy 170

Metonymy 172

Synecdoche 174

Transferred Epithet 176

Irony 177

Innuendo 180

Hyperbole 181

Understatement(Litotes and Meiosis) 183

Syllepsis 187

Zeugma 188

Paradox 189

Oxymoron 191

Euphemism 192

UNIT Ⅳ ARRAGEMENT 201

Chapter Eight The Paragraph 201

THE TOPIC SENTENCE AND THE CONTROLLING IDEA 202

The Controlling Idea Is the Writer's Commitment 202

The Controlling Idea Guides the Paragraph 203

LEVELS OF GENERALITY IN THE PARAGRAPH 207

Simple Coordinate Framework 207

Simple Subordinate Framework 213

Mixed Frameworks 216

The Concluding Sentence 223

The Introductory Paragraph 226

The Transitional Paragraph 227

Anomalous Developmental Paragraph 228

UNITY AT THE SENTENCE leVEL 234

Constructing Unified Sentences 235

Unifying Sentences to Fit a Controlling Idea 236

Chapter Nine Paragraph Coherence 239

REFERENCE GUIDES—TRANSLONAL EXPRESSIONS 242

PRONOUN REFERENCE 250

Avoiding Faulty Reference 252

WORD REPETITION 255

A Synonym for Reference 259

Collocation 261

ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCE PATTERNS 265

Chapter Ten Order of Sentences 270

GENERAL-TO-SPECIFIC ORDER 270

SPECIFIC-TO-GENERAL ORDER 272

TIME ORDER 275

SPACE ORDER 277

ORDER OF IMPORTANCE 281

Chapter Eleven The Whole Composition 285

PRACTICAL ADVICE FOR WRITING THEMES 286

Limit Your Topic 286

Invent Ideas about Your Topic 286

Shape a Thesis Statement 289

Organize Carefully 290

Construct Your Theme Well 293

Be a Good Reviser 297

TIPS FOR WRITING MINI-THEMES 297

Prepare a Workable Scratch Outline 298

Organize Carefully 300

Avoid Digression and Wordiness 300

Revise for Greater Effectiveness 302

Axioms to Suggest Subjects for Mini-Themes 308

UNIT Ⅴ INVENTION AND RESEARCH 313

Chapter Twelve Developing Your Reading Skills 313

BECOMING A DEMANDING READER 313

Annotating 314

NOTE-TAKING 319

Paraphrasing 320

Explicating 322

Summarizing 323

Quoting 325

Avoiding Plagiarism 328

Chapter Thirteen Invention Strategies 329

DEFINITION 330

Sentence Definitions 330

Extended Definitions 333

Historical Definitions 336

Stipulative Definitions 337

CLASSIFICATION 340

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST 346

Two Ways of Comparing and Contrasting 347

Analogy 352

CAUSE AND EFFECT 355

ARGUMENTATION AND PERSUASION 364

Making a Claim 364

Finding Reasonable Grounds 365

Qualifying Your Claim Effectively 369

Supporting Your Claim Effectively 371

Handling Counterarguments Reasonably 377

Chapter Fourteen The Research Paper 381

WORKING WITH SOURCES 382

Evaluating Sources 382

Primary and Seoondary Sources 384

Taking Notes 385

DOCUMENTING THE SOURCES 388

Note Bibliography Documentation 389

Endnotes and Footnotes 390

Bibliographies 391

MLA Parenthetical Documentation 392

Citing Sources in the Text 392

Preparing the List of Works Cited 393

Sample MLA-Style Works Cited 396

MLA Abbreviations 396

INDEX 398

BIBLIOGRAPHY 404