环境科学与工程原理PDF电子书下载

1 Introduction 1

1-1 WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE? 2

Quantitative Environmental Science 2

Natural Science 2

Environmental Science 2

1-2 WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING? 3

1-3 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 3

Engineering 3

Environmental Engineering 3

1-4 HOW ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERS AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENTISTS WORK TOGETHER 4

A Short Outline of This Book 5

Where Do We Start? 5

1-5 INTRODUCTION TO PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING AND SCIENCE 5

1-6 ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS OVERVIEW 6

Systems as Such 6

Le Système International d'Unités 6

Water Resource Management System 7

Solid Waste Management 11

Air Resource Management System 11

Multimedia Systems 13

Preface 13

Sustainability 13

1-7 ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION AND REGULATION 13

Water Quality Management 14

Wildlife and Habitat Protection 14

Acknowledgments 14

Environmental Policy 14

About the Authors 15

About the Cover Artist 16

Air Quality Management 18

Noise Pollution Control 21

Solid Waste Management 22

Hazardous Waste Management 23

Atomic Energy and Radiation Management 24

1-8 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS 25

Case 2:You Can't Do Everything At Once 26

Case 1:To Add or Not to Add 26

Discussion Questions 27

Chapter Review 27

References 29

Additional Reading 29

2 Chemistry 31

Atoms,Elements,and the Periodic Table 32

2-2 BASIC CHEMICAL CONCEPTS 32

2-1 INTRODUCTION 32

Chemical Bonds and Intermolecular Forces 33

The Mole,Molar Units,and Activity Units 35

Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry 36

Chemical Equilibrium 43

Reaction Kinetics 55

2-3 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 59

Alkanes,Alkenes,and Alkynes 60

Aryl(Aromatic)Compounds 61

Physical Properties of Water 62

2-4 WATER CHEMISTRY 62

Functional Groups and Classes of Compounds 62

States of Solution Impurities 63

Concentration Units in Aqueous Solutions or Suspensions 64

Buffers 67

2-5 SOIL CHEMISTRY 73

2-6 ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY 74

Fundamentals of Gases 76

Chapter Review 78

Problems 79

Additional Reading 84

Discussion Questions 84

Reference 85

3 Materials and Energy Balances 87

Fundamentals 88

3-3 MATERIALS BALANCES 88

3-1 INTRODUCTION 88

3-2 UNIFYING THEORIES 88

Conservation of Matter 88

Conservation of Energy 88

Conservation of Matter and Energy 88

Time as a Factor 90

More Complex Systems 91

Efficiency 93

The State of Mixing 97

Including Reactions 99

Reactors 103

Reactor Analysis 104

Fundamentals 112

First Law of Thermodynamics 112

3-4 ENERGY BALANCES 112

Second Law of Thermodynamics 120

Chapter Review 122

Problems 123

References 127

Additional Reading 127

Discussion Questions 127

4 Ecosystems 129

4-2 HUMAN INFLUENCES ON ECOSYSTEMS 130

4-1 INTRODUCTION 130

4-3 ENERGY AND MASS FLOW 131

Bioaccumulation 136

Carbon Cycle 138

4-4 NUTRIENT CYCLES 138

Nitrogen Cycle 140

Phosphorus Cycle 141

Sulfur Cycle 143

4-5 POPULATION DYNAMICS 144

Bacterial Population Growth 145

Animal Population Dynamics 148

Human Population Dynamics 152

4-6 LAKES:AN EXAMPLE OF MASS AND ENERGY CYCLING IN AN ECOSYSTEM 155

Stratification and Turnover in Deep Lakes 156

Biological Zones 158

Lake Productivity 159

Eutrophication 162

Chapter Review 164

4-7 ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS TO PROTECT ECOSYSTEMS 164

Problems 165

Additional Reading 167

Discussion Questions 167

References 168

5 Risk Perception,Assessment,and Management 169

5-2 RISK PERCEPTION 170

5-1 INTRODUCTION 170

Data Collection and Evaluation 173

5-3 RISK ASSESSMENT 173

Toxicity Assessment 174

Exposure Assessment 179

Risk Characterization 184

5-4 RISK MANAGEMENT 185

Problems 186

Chapter Review 186

Discussion Questions 187

References 188

Additional Reading 188

6 Hydrology 189

The Hydrological Cycle 190

6-1 FUNDAMENTALS OF HYDROLOGY 190

Precipitation 198

6-2 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION,EVAPORATION,INFILTRATION,ANDSTREAMFLOW 198

Evaporation 200

Infiltration 203

Streamflow 206

6-3 GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY 208

Aquifers 209

6-4 GROUNDWATER FLOW 213

6-5 SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATER AS A WATER SUPPLY 217

Chapter Review 218

Problems 219

Additional Reading 220

Discussion Questions 220

7 Geological and Soil Resources 221

7-2 THE ROCK CYCLE 222

7-1 INTRODUCTION 222

Precipitation 223

Sedimentary Processes 223

7-3 MINERAL CONCENTRATION 223

Igneous Activity 223

Weathering 223

Reserves 224

7-4 ROCK AND MINERAL RESOURCES 224

Environmental Impacts 225

Resource Conservation 227

7-5 ENERGY RESOURCES 229

Petroleum Formation 230

Coal Formation 230

Fossil Fuel Reserves 231

Nuclear Energy 232

Environmental Impacts 233

Alternative Energy Sources 236

Terrain Effects 236

Energy Conservation 239

Soil Components 242

Weathering 242

7-6 SOIL FORMATION AND PROPERTIES 242

Soil Properties 247

Plant Production 251

Energy Storage 251

7-7 SOIL RESOURCES 251

Nutrient Cycling 253

7-8 PARAMETERS OF SUSTAINABILITY 253

Soil Salinity 254

Soil Acidity 254

Texture and Structure 255

Soil Management 256

Soil Erosion 256

7-9 SOIL CONSERVATION 256

Chapter Review 260

Problems 261

Discussion Questions 263

References 264

Additional Reading 264

8 Water Quality Management 265

Point Sources 266

8-2 WATER POLLUTANTS AND THEIR SOURCES 266

8-1 INTRODUCTION 266

Nutrients 267

Oxygen-Demanding Material 267

Nonpoint Sources 267

Salts 268

Suspended Solids 268

Pathogenic Organisms 268

Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals 269

Toxic Metals and Toxic Organic Compounds 269

Arsenic 270

8-3 WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN RIVERS 271

Heat 271

Biochemical Oxygen Demand 272

Effect of Oxygen-Demanding Wastes on Rivers 272

Laboratory Measurement of Biochemical Oxygen Demand 276

Additional Notes on Biochemical Oxygen Demand 279

Nitrogen Oxidation 280

DO Sag Curve 282

Effect of Nutrients on Water Quality in Rivers 297

Control of Phosphorus in Lakes 298

8-4 WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN LAKES 298

Acidification of Lakes 302

8-5 WATER QUALITY IN ESTUARIES 307

8-6 WATER QUALITY IN OCEANS 309

Contaminant Migration in Groundwaters 312

8-7 GROUNDWATER QUALITY 312

Chapter Review 316

Problems 317

Discussion Questions 320

References 321

Additional Reading 321

9 Water Treatment 323

9-1 INTRODUCTION 324

Water Quality 325

Microbiological Characteristics 326

Chemical Characteristics 326

Physical Characteristics 326

Water Quality Standards 327

Radiological Characteristics 327

Water Classification and Treatment Systems 328

Colloid Stability and Destabilization 330

9-2 RAPID MIXING,FLOCCULATION,AND COAGULATION 330

Coagulants 331

Mixing and Flocculation 334

Hardness 337

9-3 SOFTENING 337

Lime-Soda Softening 342

Ion-Exchange Softening 345

Overview 347

9-4 SEDIMENTATION 347

Determination of Settling Velocity(vs) 348

Determination of Overflow Rate(vo) 350

9-5 FILTRATION 351

Disinfection Kinetics 354

9-6 DISINFECTION 354

Disinfectants and Disinfection By-Products 355

Chlorine Dioxide 356

Chlorine Reactions in Water 356

Membrane Processes 357

9-7 OTHER TREATMENT PROCESSES FOR DRINKING WATER 357

Ozonation 357

Ultraviolet Radiation 357

Aeration 358

Carbon Adsorption 358

Advanced OxidationProcesses(AOPs) 358

9-8 WATER PLANT RESIDUALS MANAGEMENT 359

Mass-Balance Analysis 360

Sludge Treatment 361

Ultimate Disposal 365

Chapter Review 366

Problems 367

Additional Reading 369

Discussion Questions 369

References 370

10 Wastewater Treatment 371

Physical Characteristics 372

10-2 CHARACTERISTICS OF DOMESTIC WASTEWATER 372

10-1 INTRODUCTION 372

Characteristics of Industrial Wastewater 373

Chemical Characteristics 373

Alternative On-Site Treatment and Disposal Systems with Water 375

10-3 ON-SITE DISPOSAL SYSTEMS 375

On-Site Treatment and Disposal Systems for Unfavorable Site Conditions 378

Alternative On-Site Treatment-Disposal Systems Without Water 381

Other On-Site Treatment and Disposal Options 381

Pretreatment of Industrial Wastes 383

10-4 MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS 383

Grit Chambers 384

Bar Racks 384

10-5 UNIT OPERATIONS OF PRETREATMENT 384

Equalization 386

Comminutors 386

10-6 PRIMARY TREATMENT 390

Classification of Microorganisms 391

Role of Microorganisms 391

10-7 UNIT PROCESSES OF SECONDARY TREATMENT 391

Overview 391

Bacterial Biochemistry 392

Some Organisms of Interest in Wastewater Treatment 392

Decomposition of Waste 393

Population Dynamics 395

Trickling Filters 396

Activated Sludge 398

Oxidation Ponds 409

Rotating Biological Contactors 411

10-8 DISINFECTION 412

Carbon Adsorption 413

Filtration 413

10-9 ADVANCED WASTEWATER TREATMENT 413

Phosphorus Removal 414

Nitrogen Control 415

Slow Rate 416

10-10 LAND TREATMENT 416

Overland Flow 417

Sources and Characteristics of Various Sludges 418

10-11 SLUDGE TREATMENT 418

Rapid Infiltration 418

Solids Computations 419

Sludge Treatment Processes 421

Utilization 427

Dedicated Land Disposal(DLD) 427

10-12 SLUDGE DISPOSAL 427

Ultimate Disposal 427

Land Spreading 427

Landfilling 427

Chapter Review 428

Sludge Disposal Regulations 428

Problems 429

Additional Reading 432

Discussion Questions 432

References 433

11 Air Pollution 435

Relativity 436

Pressure Relationships and Units of Measure 436

11-1 AIR POLLUTION PERSPECTIVE 436

11-2 FUNDAMENTALS 436

11-3 AIR POLLUTION STANDARDS 437

Adiabatic Expansion and Compression 437

Effects on Materials 440

11-4 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS 440

Effects on Vegetation 441

Effects on Health 443

Carbon Monoxide 447

11-5 ORIGIN AND FATE OF AIR POLLUTANTS 447

Nitrogen Dioxide 448

Lead 448

Hazardous Air Pollutants(HAPs) 448

Sulfur Oxides 449

Photochemical Oxidants 449

Indoor Air Pollution 451

11-6 MICRO AND MACRO AIR POLLUTION 451

Particulates 451

Acid Rain 454

Ozone Depletion 455

Global Warming 457

The Atmospheric Engine 458

11-7 AIR POLLUTION METEOROLOGY 458

Turbulence 459

Stability 460

Terrain Effects 462

Factors Affecting Dispersion of Air Pollutants 464

11-8 ATMOSPHERIC DISPERSION 464

Dispersion Modeling 465

11-9 INDOOR AIR QUALITY MODEL 471

Gaseous Pollutants 472

11-10 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL OF STATIONARY SOURCES 472

Control Technologies for Nitrogen Oxides 476

Flue Gas Desulfurization 476

Particulate Pollutants 477

Engine Fundamentals 481

11-11 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL OF MOBILE SOURCES 481

Control of Automobile Emissions 482

11-12 WASTE MINIMIZATION 483

Chapter Review 484

Problems 485

Additional Reading 486

Discussion Questions 486

References 487

12 Solid Waste Engineering 489

Magnitude of the Problem 490

12-1 PERSPECTIVE 490

12-2 CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLID WASTE 491

12-4 SOLID WASTE COLLECTION 494

12-3 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT 494

Background and Perspective 495

12-5 WASTE AS RESOURCE 495

Recycling 497

Green Chemistry and Green Engineering 497

Composting 500

Source Reduction 501

Combustion Processes 502

12-6 SOLID WASTE REDUCTION 502

Types of Incinerators 504

Public Health and Environmental Issues 506

12-7 DISPOSAL BY SANITARY LANDFILL 507

Other Thermal Treatment Processes 507

Site Selection 508

Operation 509

Leachate 511

Environmental Considerations 511

Methane and Other Gas Production 515

Landfill Design 518

Chapter Review 519

Landfill Closure 519

Problems 520

Discussion Questions 521

References 522

Additional Reading 522

13 Hazardous Waste Management 525

Dioxins and PCBs 526

13-1 THE HAZARD 526

13-2 EPA'S HAZARDOUS WASTE DESIGNATION SYSTEM 528

Cradle-to-Grave Concept 529

Congressional Actions on Hazardous Waste 529

13-3 RCRA AND HSWA 529

Generator Requirements 531

Transporter Regulations 532

Treatment,Storage,and Disposal Requirements 533

Underground Storage Tanks 535

The Hazard Ranking System 536

The National Priority List 536

13-4 CERCLA AND SARA 536

The Superfund Law 536

The National Contingency Plan 537

Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act 538

Liability 538

Waste Minimization 539

13-5 HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT 539

Recycling 542

Waste Exchange 542

Biological Treatment 543

13-6 TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES 543

Chemical Treatment 545

Physical/Chemical Treatment 548

Incineration 553

Stabilization-Solidification 559

The Secure Landfill 560

Land Treatment 560

13-7 LAND DISPOSAL 560

Deep Well Injection 560

EPA's Groundwater Remediation Procedure 564

The Process of Contamination 564

13-8 GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION AND REMEDIATION 564

Mitigation and Treatment 566

Chapter Review 568

Problems 569

Discussion Questions 573

References 574

Additional Reading 574

14 Agriculture and the Environment 577

Water Use 578

14-2 DEPLETION OF SURFACE AND GROUNDWATER RESOURCES 578

14-1 INTRODUCTION 578

Land Subsidence 579

14-3 SOIL EROSION 580

Salinization 583

14-4 WATER QUALITY 583

Nutrients 585

Pesticides 587

Malodorous Compounds 591

Ammonia Emissions 591

14-5 AIR QUALITY 591

Particulate Emissions 591

Greenhouse Gases 592

Manure Handling and Storage 593

14-6 ANIMAL WASTE MANAGEMENT 593

Effects on the Ozone Layer 593

Pesticides 593

Best Management Practices 594

Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations 594

Chapter Review 595

Manure Application 595

Problems 596

Discussion Questions 597

References 598

Additional Reading 598

15 Noise Pollution 599

15-1 INTRODUCTION 600

Properties of Sound Waves 601

Sound Power and Intensity 602

Levels and the Decibel 603

Characterization of Noise 605

The Hearing Mechanism 609

15-2 EFFECTS OF NOISE ON PEOPLE 609

Normal Hearing 612

Hearing Impairment 614

Speech Interference 616

Damage-Risk Criteria 616

Annoyance 617

Sleep Interference 618

Effects on Performance 619

The LN Concept 620

Goals of a Noise-Rating System 620

Acoustic Privacy 620

15-3 RATING SYSTEMS 620

The Leq Concept 621

Transportation Noise 622

15-4 COMMUNITY NOISE SOURCES AND CRITERIA 622

Other Internal Combustion Engines 623

Construction Noise 624

Zoning and Siting Considerations 625

Inverse Square Law 626

15-5 TRANSMISSION OF SOUND OUTDOORS 626

Levels to Protect Health and Welfare 626

Directivity 628

Radiation Fields of a Sound Source 628

Airborne Transmission 629

Source-Path-Receiver Concept 633

15-7 NOISE CONTROL 633

15-6 TRAFFIC NOISE PREDICTION 633

Leq Prediction 633

Ldn Prediction 633

Control of Noise Source by Design 634

Noise Control in the Transmission Path 635

Protect the Receiver 637

Control of Noise Source by Redress 637

Chapter Review 638

Problems 639

Discussion Questions 641

References 642

Additional Reading 642

16 Ionizing Radiation 643

Atomic Structure 644

16-1 FUNDAMENTALS 644

Radioactivity and Radiation 645

Radioactive Decay 647

Fission 650

Radioisotopes 650

The Production of X-Rays 651

Radiation Dose 653

16-2 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF IONIZING RADIATION 654

Determinants of Biological Effects 655

Sequential Pattern of Biological Effects 655

Delayed Effects 657

Relation of Dose to Type of Acute Radiation Syndrome 657

Acute Effects 657

Genetic Effects 659

16-3 RADIATION STANDARDS 661

Natural Background 663

External and Internal Radiation Hazards 663

16-4 RADIATION EXPOSURE 663

16-5 RADIATION PROTECTION 665

Radioactive Wastes 665

X-Rays 665

Radionuclides 665

Nuclear Reactor Operations 665

Reduction of External Radiation Hazards 666

Reduction of Internal Radiation Hazards 670

Waste Isolation Pilot Plant 672

Management of High-Level Radioactive Waste 672

16-6 RADIOACTIVE WASTE 672

Types of Waste 672

Management of Low-Level Radioactive Waste 673

Long-Term Management and Containment 676

Chapter Review 678

Problems 679

References 680

Additional Reading 680

Discussion Questions 680

AppendixA Properties of Air,Water,and Selected Chemicals 681

Index 690