第二语言习得研究 第2版PDF电子书下载

PART ONE Background 1

Introduction 3

1 An introduction to second language acquisition research 5

What is'second language acquisition'? 5

Case studies of L2 learners 8

Wong Fillmore's(1976,1979)study of five Mexican children 9

Schumann's (1978b)study of Alberto 10

Schmidt's(1983)study of Wes 11

Ellis'(1984a,1992)study of three classroom learners 13

Lardiere's(2007)study of Patty 15

Issues raised by the case studies 17

The role of age in L2 acquisition 19

The effects of age on the rate of second language learning 20

The effects of age on ultimate achievement 22

Agerelated effects:some general conclusions 31

A framework for exploring SLA 33

Summary and conclusion 36

PART TWO Description:the characteristics of learner language 39

Introduction 41

2 Learner errors and error analysis 45

Introduction 45

Collection of a sample of learner language 46

Errors 47

Identification of errors 47

Description of errors 50

Explanation of errors 53

Evaluating errors 56

Thelimitations of error analysis 60

Summary 62

More recent EA research 63

3 Developmental patterns in second language acquisition 67

Introduction 67

Methods for investigating developmental patterns 68

Developmental patterns in L1 acquisition 69

Developmental patterns in second language acquisition 72

The early stages(The silent period/Formulaic sequences/Structural and semantic simplification) 73

The acquisition of grammatical morphemes:order and sequence 82

The acquisition of vocabulary 99

The acquisition of phonology 103

The L2=L1 hypothesis 105

Summary 110

Conclusion 111

4 Variability in learner language 117

Introduction 117

Some theoretical perspectives 119

Sociolinguistic models 119

Social-psychological models 123

Psycholinguistic models 125

Summary and final comment 127

A typology of variability in learner language 128

Free variation in learner language 130

Systematic variation 134

Variability in form-function systems 134

Sociolinguistic accounts of L2 variability 137

Psycholinguistic accounts of L2 variability 148

Amulti-factor approach 151

Summary 152

Conclusion 155

5 Pragmatic aspects of learner languager 159

Introduction 159

Speech acts and illocutionary meaning 160

Research methods for studying pragmatic aspects of learner language 163

Illocutionary acts in learner language 169

Requests 172

Apologies 182

Refusals 186

Final comments 190

Interactional acts in learner language 192

The relationship between linguistic and pragmatic development 194

Conclusion 197

PART THREE Explaining second language acquisition:external factors 201

Introduction 203

6 Input,interaction,and second language acquisition 205

Introduction 205

Methods for investigating input and interaction 206

Descriptive methods 206

Experimental methods 207

Self-report methods 208

Introspective methods 208

Comment 209

The characteristics of input to language learners 209

Caretaker talk 210

Foreigner talk 213

Interlanguage talk 220

Summary 221

The characteristics of interactions involving language learners 221

Discourse management 222

Discourse repair 223

Repair in conversational analysis 233

Scaffolding 234

Summary 238

Input and interaction in first language acquisition 238

Input and interaction in second language acquisition 241

Research based on the computational model of L2 acquisition 241

Sociocultural accounts of interaction and L2 acquisition 270

Conclusion 274

7 Social aspects of second language acquisition 279

Introduction 279

Psycholinguistic versus sociolinguistic SLA 281

The social settings of L2 learning 286

Natural versus educational settings 288

Natural settings 290

Educational settings 300

Summary 310

Social factors and second language acquisition 311

Age 311

Sex and gender 313

Social class 316

Ethnic identity 318

Summary 323

Situational factors and L2 acquisition 323

Social theories of L2 acquisition 326

The Acculturation Model 326

The Socio-educational Model 330

The Inter-group Model 331

Language socialization 334

Social identity theory 336

Conclusion 339

PART FOUR Explaining second language acquisition:internal factors 343

Introduction 345

8 Language transfer 349

Introduction 349

Terminological issues 350

The methodology of transfer studies 351

Transfer as a communication and learning process 351

Choice of data for the study of transfer 352

Identifying instances of transfer 352

Measuring crosslinguistic effects 354

Early days 359

The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis 359

The minimalist position 361

Reappraisal 364

Evidence of transfer effects 366

Production 367

Reception 375

Conceptual transfer 377

Constraints on transfer 379

Sociolinguistic factors 380

Markedness 381

Prototypicality 387

Language distance and psychotypology 390

Developmental factors 392

Summary 396

Towards a theory of language transfer 397

1 Transfer occurs in both communication and in learning 397

2 Transfer arises as a result of both differences and similarities between the target language and the L1 398

3 Transfer works in conjunction with other factors 399

4 Transfer is both a conscious and subconscious process 399

5 Transfer is both conceptual and linguistic 400

6 Transfer is ultimately a subjective phenomenon 400

Conclusion:problems in the study of transfer 401

9 Cognitive accounts of second language acquisition 405

Introduction 405

The computational model 406

The representation of L2 knowledge 408

Early interlanguage theory 409

Variable L2 knowledge 410

Functionalist views of L2 knowledge 415

Implicit and explicit L2 knowledge 417

Declarative and procedual L2 knowledge 427

The dual-mode system 431

Concluding comments 433

The processes of L2 acquisition 434

Micro-processes 434

Macro-processes 444

Final comment on the study of processes of L2 acquisition 454

Cognitive theories of L2 acquisition 455

The Nativization Model and Operating Principles 455

The Multidimensional Model and Processability Theory 458

Emergentist models of L2 Language acquisition 465

The Competition Model 474

Skill—acquisition theories 480

Summary 482

Conclusion 482

10 Cognitive accounts of second language production 487

Introduction 487

Second language speech planning 488

Aspects of L2 production 488

The effects of speech planning on L2 production 492

The development of procedural skill in an L2 499

Communication strategies 501

Defining communication strategies 502

Taxonomies of CSs 506

Empirical studies of CSs 508

Communication strategies and L2 acquisition 511

Evaluation of communication strategy research 513

Conclusion 513

11 Sociocultural theory and second language acquisition 517

Introduction 517

'Language'in sociocultural theory 518

The methodology of sociocultural research 521

Key constructs in sociocultural SLA 523

Mediated learning 523

Mediation through socialinteraction 526

Mediation by means of private speech 529

The zone of proximal development 531

Internalization 533

Activity theory 535

SLA studies based on sociocultural theory 537

Corrective feedback 537

Collaborative dialoguing 538

Private speech 541

Metatalk 543

Task versus activity 545

Key issues in SLA:an SCT perspective 547

Errors 548

Acquisitional ordersand sequences 549

L1 transfer 550

Implicit and explicit L2 knowledge 551

Motivation 552

Conclusion 553

12 Linguistic universals and second language acquisition 557

Introduction 557

Interlanguage theory:another perspective 559

Typological universals and second language acquisition 560

Linguistic typology and language universals 560

Typologically motivated studies of second language acquisition 562

The role of typological universals in second language acquisition 577

Explaining the influence of typological universals on L2 acquisition 579

Universal Grammar and second language acquisition 581

Introducing Universal Grammar 582

The methodology of UG-basedstudies 585

Universal grammar and L2 acquisition:theoretical issues 590

The logical problem of language acquisition 591

The developmental problem of L2 acquisition 596

Approaches to investigating the role of UG 598

Empirical studies of second language acquisition based on Universal Grammar 599

Learning Principles 619

The role of UG in L2 acquisition:key issues 621

Towards a comprehensive theory of L2 acquisition incorporating UG 628

An evaluation of UG-based research and theory 631

Conclusion 634

Final comment 635

PART FIVE Explaining individual differences in second language acquisition 639

Introduction 641

13 Individual learner differences and second language learning 643

Introduction 645

The methodology of individual difference research 645

Intelligence 649

Working memory 650

Language aptitude 652

Learning styles 659

Cognitive style 660

Learning style 667

Final comment 671

Personality 672

Extraversion and introversion 673

The big five 676

Final comment 676

Motivation 677

Integrative motivation 678

Instrumental motivation 682

Linguistic self-confidence 684

Attributions 684

Intrinsic motivation and self-determination 686

Self-regulation 687

Motivational phases 688

The ideal language self 689

Final comment 690

Anxiety 691

Sources of anxiety 692

Language anxiety and language learning 693

Language anxiety and the process of learning 695

Final comment 697

Willingness to communicate 697

Learners'beliefs 698

Types of learner beliefs 699

The sources of learners'beliefs 701

The situated and dynamic nature of learner beliefs 701

The relationship between beliefs and learning 702

Learning strategies 703

Definition of learning strategies 703

Classifying learner strategies 705

Good language learner studies 707

Factors influencing choice of learning strategies 711

The relationship between learning strategies and language learning 713

Learner training 717

Final comment 719

Conclusion 720

PART SIX The brain and L2 acquisition 725

Introduction 727

14 The neuropsychology of second language acquisition 729

Introduction 729

The anatomy of the human brain 731

Left and right hemispheres 731

The cerebral cortex 731

The cerebellum 733

Subcortical areas 733

Neurons 734

Methods for investigating the'language brain' 734

Investigating bilingual aphasia 736

Neuroimaging 738

Concluding comment 740

Neuropsychological aspects of L2 acquisition 740

A specialized language faculty 740

The neurobiological basis of L1 and L2 acquisition 743

The neurobiological bases of comprehension and production in an L2 746

Implicitversus explicit L2 knowledge 749

The role of attention in L2 acquisition 755

Motivation and L2 acquisition 757

Controllingaccess to the L2 and L1 759

The Critical Period Hypothesis 761

The neurobiological basis of fossilization 764

Summary 765

Conclusion 767

PART SEVEN Classroom second language acquisition 771

Introduction 773

15 Classroom interaction and second language acquisition 775

Introduction 775

Methods of researching the second language classroom 775

Types of classroom research 777

Final comment 781

A historical overview of L2 classroom research 781

The nature of second language classroom discourse 783

Structure and general characteristics of teacher-centred discourse 784

Types of language use 788

Turn—taking 790

The difference between classroom and naturalistic discourse 792

Final comment 794

The teacher's contribution to classroom discourse 794

Teacher talk 794

Teachers'questions 797

Use of the L1 801

Use of metalanguage 802

Corrective feedback 803

The learner's contribution to classroom discourse 807

Learner participation 807

Small-group work and interaction 813

Summary 818

Tasks and interaction 818

Tasks and the negotiation of meaning 819

Tasks and L2 production 822

The co-construction of tasks through interaction 822

Interaction and L2 learning 824

Second language learning in communicative classrooms 825

Final comment 833

Conclusion 833

16 Form-focused instruction and second language acquisition 837

Introduction 837

Methodology of FFI studies 838

Choice of linguistic target 838

The measurement of learning in FFI studies 840

Theoretical positions 843

The'zero option' 843

Instruction as facilitation 844

The necessity of FFI 846

Effects of FFI on L2 acquisition 848

Comparative method studies 848

Comparisons of naturalistic and instructed L2 learners 851

The effects of FFI on production accuracy 855

The effects of FFI on the order and sequence of acquisition 860

The durability of FFI effects 866

The effects of different types of formal instruction 869

Methodological options for EFI 869

Focus-on-forms versus focus-on form 872

Input-based instruction 873

Implicit versus explicit instruction 877

Inductive versus deductive explicit instruction 882

Production practice-error-inducing 883

Corrective feedback 884

FFI and implicit knowledge 889

Effects of instruction on L2 pragmatic development 891

The mediating effects of individual difference factors 895

Conclusion 900

PART EIGHT Conclusion 907

Introduction 909

17 Epistemological issues in second language acquisition research 911

Introduction 911

The choice of data in second language acquisition research 911

Non—production data 913

Grammaticality judgement tests 914

Learner production data 916

Naturally occurring samples of learner language 917

Verbal reports 921

The question of validity 923

The construction and evaluation of SLA theories 925

Approaches to theory building in SLA research 926

The scope of a theory of second language acquisition 929

General theories of L2 acquisition 930

Modular theories 931

Epistemologically driven theories 933

The form of a theory of second language acquisition 935

Evaluating second language acquisition theories 936

The application of second language acquisition research to other fields of enquiry 943

Conclusion 948

Glossary 953

Bibliography 985

Author index 1095

Subject index 1113