PART ONE Background 1
Introduction 3
1 An introduction to second language acquisition research 5
What is'second language acquisition'? 5
Case studies of L2 learners 8
Wong Fillmore's(1976,1979)study of five Mexican children 9
Schumann's (1978b)study of Alberto 10
Schmidt's(1983)study of Wes 11
Ellis'(1984a,1992)study of three classroom learners 13
Lardiere's(2007)study of Patty 15
Issues raised by the case studies 17
The role of age in L2 acquisition 19
The effects of age on the rate of second language learning 20
The effects of age on ultimate achievement 22
Agerelated effects:some general conclusions 31
A framework for exploring SLA 33
Summary and conclusion 36
PART TWO Description:the characteristics of learner language 39
Introduction 41
2 Learner errors and error analysis 45
Introduction 45
Collection of a sample of learner language 46
Errors 47
Identification of errors 47
Description of errors 50
Explanation of errors 53
Evaluating errors 56
Thelimitations of error analysis 60
Summary 62
More recent EA research 63
3 Developmental patterns in second language acquisition 67
Introduction 67
Methods for investigating developmental patterns 68
Developmental patterns in L1 acquisition 69
Developmental patterns in second language acquisition 72
The early stages(The silent period/Formulaic sequences/Structural and semantic simplification) 73
The acquisition of grammatical morphemes:order and sequence 82
The acquisition of vocabulary 99
The acquisition of phonology 103
The L2=L1 hypothesis 105
Summary 110
Conclusion 111
4 Variability in learner language 117
Introduction 117
Some theoretical perspectives 119
Sociolinguistic models 119
Social-psychological models 123
Psycholinguistic models 125
Summary and final comment 127
A typology of variability in learner language 128
Free variation in learner language 130
Systematic variation 134
Variability in form-function systems 134
Sociolinguistic accounts of L2 variability 137
Psycholinguistic accounts of L2 variability 148
Amulti-factor approach 151
Summary 152
Conclusion 155
5 Pragmatic aspects of learner languager 159
Introduction 159
Speech acts and illocutionary meaning 160
Research methods for studying pragmatic aspects of learner language 163
Illocutionary acts in learner language 169
Requests 172
Apologies 182
Refusals 186
Final comments 190
Interactional acts in learner language 192
The relationship between linguistic and pragmatic development 194
Conclusion 197
PART THREE Explaining second language acquisition:external factors 201
Introduction 203
6 Input,interaction,and second language acquisition 205
Introduction 205
Methods for investigating input and interaction 206
Descriptive methods 206
Experimental methods 207
Self-report methods 208
Introspective methods 208
Comment 209
The characteristics of input to language learners 209
Caretaker talk 210
Foreigner talk 213
Interlanguage talk 220
Summary 221
The characteristics of interactions involving language learners 221
Discourse management 222
Discourse repair 223
Repair in conversational analysis 233
Scaffolding 234
Summary 238
Input and interaction in first language acquisition 238
Input and interaction in second language acquisition 241
Research based on the computational model of L2 acquisition 241
Sociocultural accounts of interaction and L2 acquisition 270
Conclusion 274
7 Social aspects of second language acquisition 279
Introduction 279
Psycholinguistic versus sociolinguistic SLA 281
The social settings of L2 learning 286
Natural versus educational settings 288
Natural settings 290
Educational settings 300
Summary 310
Social factors and second language acquisition 311
Age 311
Sex and gender 313
Social class 316
Ethnic identity 318
Summary 323
Situational factors and L2 acquisition 323
Social theories of L2 acquisition 326
The Acculturation Model 326
The Socio-educational Model 330
The Inter-group Model 331
Language socialization 334
Social identity theory 336
Conclusion 339
PART FOUR Explaining second language acquisition:internal factors 343
Introduction 345
8 Language transfer 349
Introduction 349
Terminological issues 350
The methodology of transfer studies 351
Transfer as a communication and learning process 351
Choice of data for the study of transfer 352
Identifying instances of transfer 352
Measuring crosslinguistic effects 354
Early days 359
The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis 359
The minimalist position 361
Reappraisal 364
Evidence of transfer effects 366
Production 367
Reception 375
Conceptual transfer 377
Constraints on transfer 379
Sociolinguistic factors 380
Markedness 381
Prototypicality 387
Language distance and psychotypology 390
Developmental factors 392
Summary 396
Towards a theory of language transfer 397
1 Transfer occurs in both communication and in learning 397
2 Transfer arises as a result of both differences and similarities between the target language and the L1 398
3 Transfer works in conjunction with other factors 399
4 Transfer is both a conscious and subconscious process 399
5 Transfer is both conceptual and linguistic 400
6 Transfer is ultimately a subjective phenomenon 400
Conclusion:problems in the study of transfer 401
9 Cognitive accounts of second language acquisition 405
Introduction 405
The computational model 406
The representation of L2 knowledge 408
Early interlanguage theory 409
Variable L2 knowledge 410
Functionalist views of L2 knowledge 415
Implicit and explicit L2 knowledge 417
Declarative and procedual L2 knowledge 427
The dual-mode system 431
Concluding comments 433
The processes of L2 acquisition 434
Micro-processes 434
Macro-processes 444
Final comment on the study of processes of L2 acquisition 454
Cognitive theories of L2 acquisition 455
The Nativization Model and Operating Principles 455
The Multidimensional Model and Processability Theory 458
Emergentist models of L2 Language acquisition 465
The Competition Model 474
Skill—acquisition theories 480
Summary 482
Conclusion 482
10 Cognitive accounts of second language production 487
Introduction 487
Second language speech planning 488
Aspects of L2 production 488
The effects of speech planning on L2 production 492
The development of procedural skill in an L2 499
Communication strategies 501
Defining communication strategies 502
Taxonomies of CSs 506
Empirical studies of CSs 508
Communication strategies and L2 acquisition 511
Evaluation of communication strategy research 513
Conclusion 513
11 Sociocultural theory and second language acquisition 517
Introduction 517
'Language'in sociocultural theory 518
The methodology of sociocultural research 521
Key constructs in sociocultural SLA 523
Mediated learning 523
Mediation through socialinteraction 526
Mediation by means of private speech 529
The zone of proximal development 531
Internalization 533
Activity theory 535
SLA studies based on sociocultural theory 537
Corrective feedback 537
Collaborative dialoguing 538
Private speech 541
Metatalk 543
Task versus activity 545
Key issues in SLA:an SCT perspective 547
Errors 548
Acquisitional ordersand sequences 549
L1 transfer 550
Implicit and explicit L2 knowledge 551
Motivation 552
Conclusion 553
12 Linguistic universals and second language acquisition 557
Introduction 557
Interlanguage theory:another perspective 559
Typological universals and second language acquisition 560
Linguistic typology and language universals 560
Typologically motivated studies of second language acquisition 562
The role of typological universals in second language acquisition 577
Explaining the influence of typological universals on L2 acquisition 579
Universal Grammar and second language acquisition 581
Introducing Universal Grammar 582
The methodology of UG-basedstudies 585
Universal grammar and L2 acquisition:theoretical issues 590
The logical problem of language acquisition 591
The developmental problem of L2 acquisition 596
Approaches to investigating the role of UG 598
Empirical studies of second language acquisition based on Universal Grammar 599
Learning Principles 619
The role of UG in L2 acquisition:key issues 621
Towards a comprehensive theory of L2 acquisition incorporating UG 628
An evaluation of UG-based research and theory 631
Conclusion 634
Final comment 635
PART FIVE Explaining individual differences in second language acquisition 639
Introduction 641
13 Individual learner differences and second language learning 643
Introduction 645
The methodology of individual difference research 645
Intelligence 649
Working memory 650
Language aptitude 652
Learning styles 659
Cognitive style 660
Learning style 667
Final comment 671
Personality 672
Extraversion and introversion 673
The big five 676
Final comment 676
Motivation 677
Integrative motivation 678
Instrumental motivation 682
Linguistic self-confidence 684
Attributions 684
Intrinsic motivation and self-determination 686
Self-regulation 687
Motivational phases 688
The ideal language self 689
Final comment 690
Anxiety 691
Sources of anxiety 692
Language anxiety and language learning 693
Language anxiety and the process of learning 695
Final comment 697
Willingness to communicate 697
Learners'beliefs 698
Types of learner beliefs 699
The sources of learners'beliefs 701
The situated and dynamic nature of learner beliefs 701
The relationship between beliefs and learning 702
Learning strategies 703
Definition of learning strategies 703
Classifying learner strategies 705
Good language learner studies 707
Factors influencing choice of learning strategies 711
The relationship between learning strategies and language learning 713
Learner training 717
Final comment 719
Conclusion 720
PART SIX The brain and L2 acquisition 725
Introduction 727
14 The neuropsychology of second language acquisition 729
Introduction 729
The anatomy of the human brain 731
Left and right hemispheres 731
The cerebral cortex 731
The cerebellum 733
Subcortical areas 733
Neurons 734
Methods for investigating the'language brain' 734
Investigating bilingual aphasia 736
Neuroimaging 738
Concluding comment 740
Neuropsychological aspects of L2 acquisition 740
A specialized language faculty 740
The neurobiological basis of L1 and L2 acquisition 743
The neurobiological bases of comprehension and production in an L2 746
Implicitversus explicit L2 knowledge 749
The role of attention in L2 acquisition 755
Motivation and L2 acquisition 757
Controllingaccess to the L2 and L1 759
The Critical Period Hypothesis 761
The neurobiological basis of fossilization 764
Summary 765
Conclusion 767
PART SEVEN Classroom second language acquisition 771
Introduction 773
15 Classroom interaction and second language acquisition 775
Introduction 775
Methods of researching the second language classroom 775
Types of classroom research 777
Final comment 781
A historical overview of L2 classroom research 781
The nature of second language classroom discourse 783
Structure and general characteristics of teacher-centred discourse 784
Types of language use 788
Turn—taking 790
The difference between classroom and naturalistic discourse 792
Final comment 794
The teacher's contribution to classroom discourse 794
Teacher talk 794
Teachers'questions 797
Use of the L1 801
Use of metalanguage 802
Corrective feedback 803
The learner's contribution to classroom discourse 807
Learner participation 807
Small-group work and interaction 813
Summary 818
Tasks and interaction 818
Tasks and the negotiation of meaning 819
Tasks and L2 production 822
The co-construction of tasks through interaction 822
Interaction and L2 learning 824
Second language learning in communicative classrooms 825
Final comment 833
Conclusion 833
16 Form-focused instruction and second language acquisition 837
Introduction 837
Methodology of FFI studies 838
Choice of linguistic target 838
The measurement of learning in FFI studies 840
Theoretical positions 843
The'zero option' 843
Instruction as facilitation 844
The necessity of FFI 846
Effects of FFI on L2 acquisition 848
Comparative method studies 848
Comparisons of naturalistic and instructed L2 learners 851
The effects of FFI on production accuracy 855
The effects of FFI on the order and sequence of acquisition 860
The durability of FFI effects 866
The effects of different types of formal instruction 869
Methodological options for EFI 869
Focus-on-forms versus focus-on form 872
Input-based instruction 873
Implicit versus explicit instruction 877
Inductive versus deductive explicit instruction 882
Production practice-error-inducing 883
Corrective feedback 884
FFI and implicit knowledge 889
Effects of instruction on L2 pragmatic development 891
The mediating effects of individual difference factors 895
Conclusion 900
PART EIGHT Conclusion 907
Introduction 909
17 Epistemological issues in second language acquisition research 911
Introduction 911
The choice of data in second language acquisition research 911
Non—production data 913
Grammaticality judgement tests 914
Learner production data 916
Naturally occurring samples of learner language 917
Verbal reports 921
The question of validity 923
The construction and evaluation of SLA theories 925
Approaches to theory building in SLA research 926
The scope of a theory of second language acquisition 929
General theories of L2 acquisition 930
Modular theories 931
Epistemologically driven theories 933
The form of a theory of second language acquisition 935
Evaluating second language acquisition theories 936
The application of second language acquisition research to other fields of enquiry 943
Conclusion 948
Glossary 953
Bibliography 985
Author index 1095
Subject index 1113