14 Soils and Fertilizers 927
14.1 Introduction 927
14.2 History 928
14.3 Pedogenesis 929
14.3.1 Weathering and Alteration of Minerals and Clays Formation 929
14.3.2 Incorporation of Organic Matter 929
14.3.3 Mass Transfer between Horizons 930
14.3.3.1 Descending Processes 930
14.3.3.2 Ascending Processes 931
14.4 Soil Morphology 931
14.4.1 Major Horizons 931
14.4.2 Transitional Horizons 931
14.4.3 Subdivisions of Master Horizons 932
14.5 Soil Properties 936
14.5.1 Horizon Boundaries 936
14.5.2 Coloration of Soils 936
14.5.2 Soil Texture 938
14.5.4 Soil Structure 941
14.5.5 Consistency 944
14.5.6 Roots 945
14.5.7 Acidity(pH)and Effervescence 945
14.6 Soil Taxonomy 945
14.6.1 USDA Classification of Soils 945
14.6.2 FAO Classification of Soils 948
14.6.3 French Classification of Soils 954
14.6.4 ASTM Civil Engineering Classification of Soils 956
14.7 Soil Identification 957
14.8 ISO and ASTM Standards 958
14.9 Physical Properties of Common Soils 961
14.10 Fertilizers 961
14.10.1 Nitrogen Fertilizers 962
14.10.2 Phosphorus Fertilizers 963
14.10.3 Potassium Fertilizers 964
14.10.4 Role of Micronutrients in Soils 965
14.11 Further Reading 966
15 Cements,Concrete,Building Stones and Construction Materials 967
15.1 Introduction 967
15.1.1 Nonhydraulic Cements 968
15.2 Portland Cement 968
15.2.1 History 969
15.2.2 Raw Materials for Portland Cement 969
15.2.3 Processing of Portland Cement 970
15.2.4 Portland Cement Chemistry 971
15.2.5 Portland Cement Nomenclature 973
15.3 Aggregates 974
15.3.1 Coarse Aggregates 975
15.3.2 Fine Aggregates 976
15.4 Mineral Admixtures 976
15.5 Mortars and Concrete 976
15.5.1 Definitions 976
15.5.2 Degradation Processes 977
15.6 Ceramics for Construction 978
15.7 Building Stones 979
15.7.1 Limestones and Dolomites 979
15.7.2 Sandstones 979
15.7.3 Basalt 979
15.7.4 Granite 979
15.8 Further Reading 981
16 Timbers and Woods 983
16.1 General Description 983
16.2 Properties of Woods 985
16.2.1 Moisture Content 985
16.2.2 Specific Gravity and Density 986
16.2.3 Drying and Shrinkage 987
16.2.4 Mechanical Properties 987
16.2.5 Thermal Properties 988
16.2.6 Electrical Properties 989
16.2.7 Heating Values and Flammability 989
16.2.8 Durability and Decay Resistance 990
16.3 Properties of Hardwoods and Softwoods 990
16.4 Applications 997
16.5 Wood Performance in Various Corrosives 997
16.6 Further Reading 998
17 Fuels,Propellants and Explosives 999
17.1 Introduction and Classification 999
17.2 Combustion Characteristics 999
17.2.1 Enthalpy of Combustion 999
17.2.1.1 Stoichiometric Combustion Ratios 1001
17.2.1.2 Low(Net)and High(Gross)Heating Values 1001
17.2.1.3 Air Excess 1002
17.2.1.4 Dulong's Equations and Other Practical Equations 1002
17.2.1.5 Adiabatic Flame Temperature 1003
17.2.1.6 Wobbe Index for Gaseous Fuels 1003
17.3 Solid Fuels:Coals and Cokes 1004
17.4 Liquid Fuels 1008
17.5 Gaseous Fuels 1009
17.6 Prices of Common Fuels 1011
17.7 Propellants 1011
17.7.1 Liquid Propellants 1011
17.7.1.1 Petroleum-based Propellants 1012
17.7.1.2 Cryogenic Propellants 1012
17.7.1.3 Hypergolic Propellants 1012
17.7.2 Solid Propellants 1014
17.8 Explosives 1015
17.9 Further Reading 1018
17.9.1 Fuels and Combustion 1018
17.9.2 Propellants and Explosives 1018
18 Composite Materials 1019
18.1 Definitions 1019
18.2 Properties of Composites 1021
18.2.1 Density 1021
18.2.2 Tensile Strength and Elastic Moduli 1022
18.2.3 Specific Heat Capacity 1023
18.2.4 Thermal Conductivity 1023
18.2.5 Thermal Expansion Coefficient 1024
18.3 Fabrication Processes for Monofilaments 1024
18.4 Reinforcement Materials 1025
18.4.1 Glass Fibers 1025
18.4.2 Boron Fibers 1025
18.4.3 Carbon Fibers 1026
18.4.4 Polyethylene Fibers 1027
18.4.5 Polyaramide Fibers 1027
18.4.6 Ceramic Oxide Fibers 1028
18.4.7 Silicon Carbide Fibers 1028
18.5 Polymer Matrix Composites(PMCs) 1029
18.6 Metal Matrix Composites(MMCs) 1031
18.7 Ceramic Matrix Composites(CMCs) 1033
18.8 Carbon-Carbon Composites(CCs) 1034
18.9 Further Reading 1035