CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Electronics and Design 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 History of Electronics 1
1.3 Electronic Systems 3
Sensors 3
Actuators 3
1.4 Electronic Signals and Notation 4
Analog-to-Digital Converters 5
Digital-to-Analog Converters 6
Notation 6
1.5 Classifications of Electronic Systems 7
1.6 Specifications of Electronic Systems 9
Transient Specifications 9
Distortion 10
Frequency Specifications 10
dc and Small-Signal Specifications 11
1.7 Design of Electronic Systems 12
1.8 Design of Electronic Circuits 14
Analysis versus Design 14
Definition of Engineering Design 15
The Circuit-Level Design Process 16
Benefits of Studying from a Design Perspective 19
Types of Design Projects 20
Design Report 21
1.9 Electronic Devices 21
Semiconductor Diodes 21
Bipolar Junction Transistors 22
Field-Effect Transistors 22
REFERENCES 26
PROBLEMS 26
CHAPTER 2 Diodes 27
2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 Ideal Diodes 28
2.3 Transfer Characteristic of Diode Circuits 31
2.4 Practical Diodes 32
2.5 Physical Operation of Junction Diodes 32
Diode Junction 32
Forward-Biased Condition 34
Reverse-Biased Condition 34
Breakdown Condition 34
2.6 Characteristic of Practical Diodes 35
2.7 Determination of Diode Constants 37
2.8 Temperature Effects 39
2.9 Analysis of Practical Diode Circuits 41
Graphical Method 42
Approximate Method 42
Iterative Method 42
2.10 Modeling of Practical Diodes 44
Constant-Drop de Model 44
Piecewise Linear dc Model 44
Low-Frequency ac Model 46
High-Frequency ac Model 51
PSpice/SPICE Diode Model 53
2.11 Zener Diodes 56
Zener Regulator 57
Design of a Zener Regulator 59
Zener Limiters 62
Temperature Effects on Zener Diodes 65
2.12 Light-Emitting Diodes 66
2.13 Schottky Barrier Diodes 66
2.14 Power Rating 67
2.15 Diode Data Sheets 69
SUMMARY 73
REFERENCES 73
REVIEW QUESTIONS 73
PROBLEMS 74
CHAPTER 3 Applications of Diodes 81
3.1 Introduction 81
3.2 Diode Rectifiers 81
Single-Phase Half-Wave Rectifiers 82
Single-Phase Full-Wave Center-Tapped Rectifiers 89
Single-Phase Full-Wave Bridge Rectifiers 94
3.3 Output Filters for Rectifiers 99
L-Filters 99
C-Filters 102
LC-Filters 106
3.4 Clippers 109
Parallel Clippers 109
Series Clippers 110
3.5 Clamping Circuits 112
Fixed-Shift Clampers 112
Variable-Shift Clampers 113
3.6 Peak Detectors and Demodulators 116
3.7 Voltage Multipliers 120
Voltage Doublers 120
Voltage Triplers and Quadruplers 121
3.8 Function Generators 123
SUMMARY 126
REFERENCES 126
REVIEW QUESTIONS 126
PROBLEMS 127
CHAPTER 4 Introduction to Amplifiers 133
4.1 Introduction 133
4.2 Amplifier Characteristics 134
Voltage Gain 134
Current Gain 135
Power Gain 135
Logarithmic Gain 135
Input and Output Resistances 136
Amplifier Saturation 136
Amplifier Nonlinearity 138
4.3 Amplifier Types 140
Voltage Amplifiers 140
Current Amplifiers 144
Transconductance Amplifiers 148
Transimpedance Amplifiers 150
4.4 PSpice/SPICE Amplifier Models 151
Voltage Amplifier 152
Current Amplifier 152
Transconductance Amplifier 152
Transimpedance Amplifier 152
4.5 Gain Relationships 152
Voltage and Current Amplifiers 152
Voltage and Transconductance Amplifiers 153
Voltage and Transimpedance Amplifiers 153
4.6 Cascaded Amplifiers 154
Cascaded Voltage Amplifiers 154
Cascaded Current Amplifiers 155
4.7 Introduction to Transistor Amplifiers 156
Bipolar Junction Transistors 156
Field-Effect Transistors 161
4.8 Frequency Response of Amplifiers 165
Low-Pass Characteristic 166
High-Pass Characteristic 168
Band-Pass Characteristic 170
Gain and Bandwidth Relation 171
4.9 Miller s Theorem 172
4.10 Amplifier Design 175
SUMMARY 178
REVIEW QUESTIONS 178
PROBLEMS 179
CHAPTER 5 Amplifying Devices 185
5.1 Introduction 185
5.2 Bipolar Junction Transistors 186
Input and Output Characteristics 186
BJT Models 188
dc Biasing of BJTs 192
Biasing Circuit Design 193
Common-Emitter Amplifiers 196
Emitter Followers 201
Common-Base Amplifiers 205
Amplifiers with Active Loads 209
5.3 Field-Effect Transistors 214
Enhancement MOSFETs 215
Depletion MOSFETs 218
Junction Field-Effect Transistors 221
FET Models 223
Biasing of FETs 227
Common-Source Amplifiers 233
Common-Drain Amplifiers 237
Common-Gate Amplifiers 240
FET Amplifiers with Active Loads 242
5.4 FETs versus BJTs 245
5.5 Design of Amplifiers 245
BJT Amplifier Design 246
FET Amplifier Design 249
SUMMARY 252
REFERENCES 252
REVIEW QUESTIONS 252
PROBLEMS 253
CHAPTER 6 Introduction to Operational Amplifiers 267
6.1 Introduction 267
6.2 Characteristics of Ideal Op-Amps 268
6.3 Op-Amp PSpice/SPICE Models 270
dc Linear Model 271
ac Linear Model 272
Nonlinear Macromodel 273
6.4 Analysis of Ideal Op-Amp Circuits 273
Noninverting Amplifiers 274
Inverting Amplifiers 277
Differential Amplifiers 279
6.5 Op-Amp Applications 281
Integrators 281
Differentiators 286
Instrumentation Amplifiers 289
Noninverting Summing Amplifiers 291
Inverting Summing Amplifiers 292
Addition-Subtraction Amplifiers 293
Optocoupler Drivers 296
Photodetectors 296
Voltage-Current Converters 297
dc Voltmeteters 298
dc Millivoltmeters 298
Negative Impedance Converters 299
Constant Current Sources 300
Noninverting Integrators 301
Inductance Simulators 302
ac-Coupled Bootstrapped Voltage Followers 303
6.6 Circuits with Op-Amps and Diodes 304
Most Positive Signal Detectors 305
Precision Peak Voltage Detectors 305
Precision Half-Wave Rectifiers 306
Precision Full-Wave Rectifiers 307
Precision Clamping Circuits 308
Fixed Voltage Limiters 309
Adjustable Voltage Limiters 310
Zener Voltage Limiters 315
Hard Limiters 316
6.7 Op-Amp Circuit Design 319
SUMMARY 321
REFERENCES 321
REVIEW QUESTIONS 321
PROBLEMS 322
CHAPTER 7 Characteristics of Practical Op-Amps 329
7.1 Introduction 329
7.2Internal Structure of Op-Amps 329
7.3 Parameters of Practical Op-Amps 330
Input Resistance 331
Output Resistance 331
Input Capacitance 331
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio 331
Large-Signal Voltage Gain 333
Rise Time 333
Open-Loop Voltage Gain and Bandwidth 334
Slew Rate 338
Input Voltage Limits 339
Output Voltage Limits 339
Input Offset Voltage 339
Input Biasing Current 341
Input Offset Current 343
Power Supply Rejection Ratio 345
Thermal Drift 345
7.4 Offset Voltage Adjustment 347
7.5 Measurement of Offset Parameters 349
SUMMARY 350
REFERENCES 350
REVIEW QUESTIONS 350
PROBLEMS 350
CHAPTER 8 Frequency Response of Amplifiers 353
8.1 Introduction 353
8.2 Frequency Model and Response of BJTs 354
High-Frequency Model 354
Small-Signal PSpice/SPICE Model 356
Frequency Response of BJTs 356
8.3 Frequency Model and Response of FETs 360
Frequency Model and Response of JFETs 360
Frequency Model and Response of MOSFETs 361
Small-Signal PSpice/SPICE Model 363
8.4 Bode Plots 364
Low-Pass Amplifiers 365
High-Pass Amplifiers 366
Band-Pass Amplifiers 367
8.5 Amplifier Frequency Response 368
Low Cutoff Frequencies 369
High Cutoff Frequencies 370
8.6 Short-Circuit and Zero-Value Methods for Determining Break Frequencies 374
Short-Circuit Method 374
Zero-Value Method 376
Mid-Band Voltage Gain 378
8.7 Frequency Response of Common-Emitter BJT Amplifiers 378
Low Cutoff Frequencies 378
High Cutoff Frequencies 380
8.8 Frequency Response of Common-Collector BJT Amplifiers 384
Low Cutoff Frequencies 385
High Cutoff Frequencies 386
8.9 Frequency Response of Common-Base BJT Amplifiers 388
Low Cutoff Frequencies 388
High Cutoff Frequencies 390
8.10 Frequency Response of FET Amplifiers 391
Common-Source Amplifiers 392
Common-Drain Amplifiers 395
Common-Gate Amplifiers 397
8.11 Multistage Amplifiers 399
8.12 Frequency Response of Op-Amp Circuits 406
Frequency Response of Op-Amp Integrators 406
Frequency Response of Op-Amp Differentiators 408
8.13 Designing for Frequency Response 410
SUMMARY 410
REFERENCES 411
REVIEW QUESTIONS 411
PROBLEMS 411
CHAPTER 9 Active Filters 421
9.1 Introduction 421
9.2 Active versus Passive Filters 421
9.3 Types of Active Filters 422
9.4 The Biquadratic Function 424
9.5 Butterworth Filters 425
Butterworth Function for n=2 426
Butterworth Function for n=3 426
9.6 Low-Pass Filters 427
First-Order Low-Pass Filters 427
Second-Order Low-Pass Filters 429
Butterworth Low-Pass Filters 433
9.7 High-Pass Filters 436
First-Order High-Pass Filters 436
Second-Order High-Pass Filters 437
Butterworth High-Pass Filters 440
9.8 Band-Pass Filters 442
Wide Band-Pass Filters 443
Narrow Band-Pass Filters 445
9.9 Band-Reject Filters 448
Wide-Band-Reject Filters 448
Narrow-Band-Reject Filters 451
9.10 All-Pass Filters 453
9.11 Switched Capacitor Filters 454
Switched Capacitor Resistors 454
Switched Capacitor Integrators 456
Universal Switched Capacitor Filters 456
9.12 Filter Design Guidelines 458
SUMMARY 459
REFERENCFS 459
REVIEW QUESTIONS 459
PROBLEMS 460
CHAPTER 10 Feedback Amplifiers 463
10.1 Introduction 463
10.2 Feedback 464
10.3 Feedback Analysis 465
Gain Sensitivity 467
Feedback Factor Sensitivity 467
Frequency Response 468
Distortion 470
10.4 Feedback Topologies 472
10.5 Analysis of Feedback Amplifiers 474
10.6 Series-Shunt Feedback 476
Analysis of an Ideal Series-Shunt Feedback Network 477
Analysis of a Practical Series-Shunt Feedback Network 479
10.7 Series-Series Feedback 485
Analysis of an Ideal Series-Series Feedback Network 486
Analysis of a Practical Series-Series Feedback Network 487
10.8 Shunt-Shunt Feedback 493
Analysis of an Ideal Shunt-Shunt Feedback Network 494
Analysis of a Practical Shunt-Shunt Feedback Network 496
10.9 Shunt-Series Feedback 502
Analysis of an Ideal Shunt-Series Feedback Network 503
Analysis of a Practical Shunt-Series Feedback Network 503
10.10 Feedback Circuit Design 506
10.11 Stability Analysis 511
Poles and Instability 512
Nyquist Stability Criterion 514
Relative Stability 516
Effects of Phase Margin 517
Stability Using Bode Plots 518
10.12 Compensation Techniques 521
Addition of a Dominant Pole 521
Changing the Dominant Pole 523
Miller Compensation and Pole Splitting 524
Modification of the Feedback Path 526
SUMMARY 529
REFERENCES 530
REVIEW QUESTIONS 530
PROBLEMS 531
CHAPTER 11 Oscillators 541
11.1 Introduction 541
11.2 Principles of Oscillators 542
Frequency Stability 544
Amplitude Stability 545
11.3 Phase-Shift Oscillators 545
11.4 Quadrature Oscillators 549
111.5 Three-Phase Oscillators 551
11.6 Wien-Bridge Oscillators 552
11.7 Colpitts Oscillators 556
11.8 Hartley Oscillators 562
11.9 Crystal Oscillators 564
11.10 Active-Filter Tuned Oscillators 568
11.11 Design of Oscillators 571
SUMMARY 572
REFERENCES 572
REVIEW QUESTIONS 572
PROBLEMS 573
CHAPTER 12 Introduction to Digital Electronics 577
12.1 Introduction 577
12.2 Logic States 577
12.3 Logic Gates 578
12.4 Performance Parameters of Logic Gates 580
Voltage Transfer Characteristic(VTC) 580
Noise Margins 581
Fan-Out and Fan-In 582
Propagation Delay 584
Power Dissipation 585
Delay-Power Product 587
12.5 NMOS Inverters 588
NMOS Inverter with Enhancement Load 588
NMOS Inverter with Depletion Load 595
Comparison of NMOS Inverters 601
12.6 NMOS Logic Circuits 602
NMOS Transmission Gates 602
NMOS NOR Gates 602
NMOS NAND Gates 603
12.7 CMOS Inverters 603
12.8 CMOS Logic Circuits 608
CMOS Transmission Gates 608
CMOS NOR and NAND Gates 610
CMOS Families 611
12.9 Comparison of CMOS and NMOS Gates 611
12.10 BJT Inverters 612
Voltage Transfer Characteristic(VTC) 612
Switching Characteristics 613
12.11 Transistor-Transistor Logic(TTL) Gates 617
Standard TTL Gates 618
High-Speed TTL NAND Gates 624
Schottky TTL NAND Gates 628
12.12 Emitter-Coupled Logic(ECL)OR/NOR Gates 630
12.13 BiCMOS Inverters 636
Propagation Delay 637
12.14 Interfacing of Logic Gates 638
TTL Driving CMOS 639
CMOS Driving TTL 641
12.15 Comparison of Logic Gates 641
12.16 Design of Logic Circuits 643
SUMMARY 645
REFERENCES 645
REVIEW QUESTIONS 645
PROBLEMS 646
CHAPTER 13 Active Sources and Differential Amplifiers 655
13.1 Introduction 655
13.2 Internal Structure of Differential Amplifiers 656
13.3 BJT Current Sources 657
Basic Current Source 657
Modified Basic Current Source 659
Widlar Current Source 661
Cascode Current Source 664
Wilson Current Source 665
Multiple Current Sources 669
13.4 JFET Current Sources 670
13.5 MOSFET Current Sources 671
Basic Current Source 671
Multiple Current Sources 674
Cascode Current Source 674
Wilson Current Source 675
13.6 Design of Active Current Sources 676
13.7 Active Voltage Sources 676
Impedance Transformation 677
Negative Feedback 677
Negative Feedback and Impedance Transformation 678
13.8 Characteristics of Differential Amplifiers 679
13.9 BJT Differential Amplifiers 681
dc Transfer Characteristics 681
Small-Signal Analysis 683
13.10 BJT Differential Amplifiers with Active Loads 689
Small-Signal Analysis 690
Differential Amplifier with Modified Current Mirror 692
Cascode Differential Amplifier 693
13.11 JEET Differential Amplifiers 695
JEET Differential Pair 695
JEET Differential Pair with Active Load 702
13.12 MOS Differential Amplifiers 702
NMOS Differential Pair 703
MOS Differential Pair with Active Load 705
13.13 BiCMOS Differential Amplifiers 708
BJT versus CMOS Amplifiers 708
BiCMOS Amplifiers 709
Cascode BiCMOS Amplifiers 710
13.14 Frequency Response of Differential Amplifiers 713
13.15 Design of Differential Amplifiers 715
SUMMARY 715
REFERENCES 715
REVIEW QUESTIONS 715
PROBLEMS 716
CHAPTER 14 Power Amplifiers 723
14.1 Introduction 723
14.2 Classification of Power Amplifiers 724
14.3 Emitter Followers 725
Transfer Characteristic 726
Signal Waveforms 726
Output Power and Efficiency 726
14.4 Class A Amplifiers 729
Basic Common-Emitter Amplifier 729
Common-Emitter Amplifiers 732
Transformer-Coupled Load Amplifier 733
14.5 Class B Push-Pull Amplifiers 735
Complementary Push-Pull Amplifiers 735
Transformer-Coupled Load Push-Pull Amplifier 740
14.6 Complementary Class AB Push-Pull Amplifiers 744
Transfer Characteristie 744
Output Power and Efficiency 745
Biasing with Diodes 745
Biasing with Diodes and an Active Current Source 746
Biasing with a VBE Multiplier 749
14.7 Quasi-Complementary Class AB Push-Pull Amplifiers 752
14.8 Transformer-Coupled Class AB Push-Pull Amplifiers 753
14.9 Short-Circuit and Thermal Protection 754
Short-Circuit Protection 755
Thermal Protection 755
14.10 Power Op-Amps 756
IC Power Amplifiers 756
Bridge Amplifier 759
14.11 Thermal Considerations 760
Thermal Resistance 760
Heat Sink and Heat Flow 760
Power Dissipation Versus Temperature 761
14.12 Design of Power Amplifiers 763
SUMMARY 763
REFERENCES 763
REVIEW QUESTIONS 763
PROBLEMS 764
CHAPTER 15 Operational Amplifiers 767
15.1 Introduction 767
15.2 Internal Structure of Op-Amps 767
15.3 Op-Amp Parameters 768
Input Biasing Current 769
Input Offset Current 769
Input Offset Voltage and Thermal Voltage Drift 769
Common Mode Rejection Ratio 771
Input Resistance 772
Output Resistance 775
Frequency Response 775
Slew Rate 778
15.4 JFET Op-Amps 779
JFET Op-Amp LH0022 780
JFET Op-Amp LF411 781
JFET Op-Amp LH0062 784
JFET Op-Amp LH0032 785
15.5 CMOS Op-Amps 787
CMOS Op-Amp MC14573 787
CMOS Op-Amp TLC1078 790
15.6 BiCMOS Op-Amps 792
BiCMOS Op-Amp CA3130 792
BiCMOS Op-Amp CA3140 793
15.7 BJT Op-Amps 795
BJT Op-Amp LM124 795
BJT Op-Amp LM741 796
15.8 Analysis of the LM741 Op-Amp 798
dc Analysis 798
Small-Signal ac Analysis 803
Analysis of Frequency Response 811
Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit 812
15.9 Design of Op-Amps 812
SUMMARY 813
REFERENCES 813
REVIEW QUESTIONS 814
PROBLEMS 814
CHAPTER 16 Integrated Analog Circuits and Appplications 817
16.1 Introduction 817
16.2 Comparators 817
Comparators versus Op-Amps 818
Output-Side Connection 818
Threshold Comparators 819
16.3 Zero-Crossing Detectors 821
16.4 Schmitt Triggers 822
Inverting Schmitt Trigger 822
Noninverting Schmitt Trigger 825
Schmitt Trigger with Reference Voltage 826
Effects of Hysteresis on the Output Voltage 827
16.5 Square-Wave Generators 829
16.6 Triangular-Wave Generators 833
16.7 Sawtooth-Wave Generators 836
16.8 Voltage-Controlled Oscillators 839
Charging Mode 840
Discharging Mode 840
Circuit Implementation 840
The NE/SE-566 VCO 842
16.9 The 555 Timer 844
Functional Block Diagram 844
Monostable Multivibrator 845
Applications of Monostable Multivibrators 847
Astable Multivibrator 849
Applications of Astable Multivibrators 851
16.10 Phase-Lock Loops 855
Phase Detector 856
Integrated Circuit PLL 857
Applications of the 565 PLL 859
16.11 Voltage-to-Frequency and Frequency-to-Voltage Converters 862
V/F Converter 863
F/V Converter 867
16.12 Sample-and-Hold Circuits 870
Sample-and-Hold Op-Amp Circuits 871
Sample-and-Hold ICs 872
16.13 Digital-to-Analog Converters 873
Weighted-Resistor D/A Converter 873
R-2R Ladder Network D/A Converter 874
IC D/A Converters 876
16.14 Analog-to-Digital Converters 879
Successive Approximation A/D Converter 879
IC A/D Converters 881
16.15 Circuit Design Using Analog ICS 883
SUMMARY 883
REFERENCES 883
REVIEW QUESTIONS 884
PROBLEMS 885
APPENDIXES 887
Appendix A:Introduction to PSpice 887
Appendix B:Review of Basic Circuits 913
Appendix C:Low-Frequency Hybrid BJT Model 953
Appendix D:Ebers-Moll Model of Bipolar Junction Transistors 957
Appendix E:Passive Components 963
Appendix F:Design Problems 969
Answers to Selected Exercises 971
Index 977
About the Author 991