Chapter1 Introduction to Telecommunications and Fiber Optlcs 1
1.1 Telecommunications 1
What It Is 1
Telecommunications：Point-to-Point Systems and Networks 2
Information-Carrying Capacity 3
The Need for Fiber-Optic Communications Systems 5
1.2 A Fiber-Optic Communications System：The Basic Blocks 6
Basic Block Diagram 7
Historical Notes 13
1.3 A Look Back and a Glance Ahead 13
The Role of Fiber-Optic Communications Technology 13
The Industry Today and Future Trends 19
Developments to Watch 25
Problems 26
References 27
Chapter2 Physlcs of Light：A Brlef Overview 28
2.1 Electromagnetic Waves 28
2.2 Beams (Rays) 30
Refractive Index 30
A Photon 36
An Energy-Level Diagram 36
2.3 A Stream of Photons 36
Radiation and Absorption 37
Summary 40
Problems 41
References 41
Chapter3 Optical Fibers--Basics 42
3.1 How Optical Fibers Conduct Light 42
Step-Index Fiber：The Basic Structure 42
Launching the Light：Understanding Numerical Aperture. 46
3.2 Attenuation 49
Bending Losses 50
Scattering 52
Absorption 53
Calculations of Total Attenuation 54
Measuring Attenuation 56
3.3 Intermodal and Chromatic Dispersion 57
Modes 57
Modal (Intermodal) Dispersion 60
The First Solution to the Modal-Dispersion Problem-Graded-Index Fiber 63
A Better Solution the Modal-Dispersion Problem-Singlemode Fiber 65
Chromatioc Dispersion 66
Bit Rate and Bandwidth Defined 69
3.4 Bit Rate and Bandwidth 69
Dispersion and Bit Rate 70
3.5 Reading a Data Sheet 71
Where to Begin 72
General Section 72
Optical Characteristics Section 72
Geometric Characteristics Section 75
Environmental Specifications Section 76
Conclusion 77
Mechanical Specifications Section 77
Other Characteristics 77
Summary 79
Problems 80
References 82
Chapter4 Optical Fibers-A Deeper Look 83
4.1 Maxwell s Equations 83
Set of Maxwell s Equations 83
Interpretation of Maxwell s Equations 85
Wave Equations 87
Solving Wave Equations 89
4.2 Propagation of EM Waves 90
Wave Equations for a Time-Harmonic EM Field 90
EM Waves：Propagation in a Lossy Medium 91
EM Waves：Propagation in waveguides 93
4.3 More About Total Internal Reflection 97
Boundary Conditions 97
Refiectances 99
4.4 More About Modes 101
Some Words About Mode Theory and Important Results 101
Linear-Polarized (LP) Modes 102
Three Types of Modes： Guided, Radiation ,and Leaky 107
Phase and Group Velocities 107
Power Confinement 109
Cutoff Wavelength (Frequency) 110
Computer Simulation 114
4.5 Attenuation in Multimode Fibers 114
General Approach 115
Intrinsic Losses 116
Extrinsic Losses-Absorption 117
Extrinsic Losses-Bending Losses 118
Modes, Attenuation, and Attenuation Constant 120
General Comments 122
4.6 Dispetsion in Multimode Fibers 122
Intermodal (Modal) Dispersion-A Closer Look 125
Chromatic Dispersion-Material Dispersion 126
Waveguied Dispersion 132
Bandwidth of Multimode Fibers 132
Summary 135
Problems 136
References 137
The Principle of Action 139
Chapter5 Singiemode Fibers-Basics 139
5.1 How a Singlemode Fiber Works 139
Gaussian Beam 140
Core, Cladding,and Mode-Fieid Diameter(MFD) 142
Cutoff Wavelength 143
5.2 Attenuation 144
Bending Losses 144
Scattering 146
Absorption 146
Chromatic Dispersion 147
5.3 Dispersion and Bandwidth 147
Conventional, Dispersion-Shifted, and Dispersion-Flattened Fibers 153
Polarization-Mode Dispersion(PMD) 155
Bandwidth (Bit Rate) of a singlemode Fiber 158
Reading a Data Sheet 160
General Section 160
Specifications Section 160
Summary 165
Problems 166
References 167
Gaussian Model and Real Mode-Field Distribution 168
Chapter6 Singlemode Fibers-A Deeper Look 168
6.1 Mode Field 168
Curoff Wavelength and V-number 171
6.2 More About Attenuation in a Singlemode Fiber 172
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Losses 173
6.3 Coping with Dispersion in a Singlemode Fiber 178
Chromatic Dispersion 178
Coping with Chromatic Dispersion 180
Compensation for Chromatic Dispersion with Dispersion-Compensating Fiber 181
Dispersion-Compensating Gratings (DCG) 185
Dispersion Compensation：The System Viewpoint 187
Coping With PMD 188
Polarization-Dependent Loss (PDL) 194
Brief Summary 195
6.4 Nonlinear Effects in a Singlemode Fiber 195
Nonlinear Refractive Effects 195
Four-Wave Mixing (FWM) 200
Stimulated Scattering 202
6.5 Trends in Fiber Design 204
Summary 206
Problems 207
References 208
Chapter7 Fabrication, Cabling, and Installation 210
7.1 Fabrication 210
Two Major Stages 211
Vapor-Phase Deposition Methods 213
Coating 218
7.2 Fiber-Optic Cables 220
Cables 220
Reading Data Sheets 242
Installation Procedure 244
Classification 244
7.3 Installation-Placing the Cable 244
Summary 246
Problems 246
References 247
Chapter8 Fiber Cable Connectorization and Testing 248
8.1 Splicing 248
Connection Losses 248
Splicing Procedure 252
Conclusion 257
8.2 Connectors 257
Connectors-A Basic Structure 258
Major Characteristics 259
Connector Styles-Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow 261
Standards 265
Reading Data Sheets 266
Termination Process 266
Receptacles, Adapters, and Special Connectors 267
Tests and Measurements 267
8.3 Installation Hardware 270
Why Installation Hardware 270
Hardware Systems and Components 272
8.4 Design of Local-Area-Network Installation 283
Conclusion 283
Link Consideration-Power Budget and Rise-Time Budget (Bandwidth) 284
Local Area Network-General Considerations 288
Cabling of Local Area Networks 291
Basic Recommendations 293
Plastic (Polymer) Optical Fiber (POF) 295
8.5 Testing, Troubleshooting, and Measurement 296
Test Equipment 296
What We Need to Test 304
Testing Network Attenuation 304
Connector and Splice Testing 307
Testing Network Bandwidth 307
Trobleshooting 310
Summary 310
Problems 311
References 312
Chapter9 Light Sources and Transmitters-Basics 313
9.1 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) 313
Light Radiation by a Semiconductor 314
General Considerations 318
9.2 Laser Diodes (LDs) 322
Reading Data Sheets-Characteristics of LEDs 324
Prainciple of Action 333
Superluminescent Diodes (SLDs) 347
9.3 Reading Data Sheets-The Characteristics of Laser Diodes 347
Broad-Area Laser Diodes 347
Reading the Data Sheet of a DEB Laser Diode 354
Summary 359
Problems 360
References 364
Intrinsic Semiconductors：Fermi Energy and Number of Charge Carriers 365
10.1 More About Semiconductors 365
Chapter10 Light Sources and Transmitters-A Deeper Look 365
Doped Semiconductors 368
p-n Junction 369
Biasing 371
A Closer Look at the Bandgaps 372
10.2 Efficiency of a Laser Diode 375
Input-Output Relationship 375
Three Types of Efficiency 377
More About the Efficiency of Laser-Diode Operation 381
Threshold and Operating Currents 386
10.3 Characteristics of Laser Diodes 386
Radiating Wavelength and Spectral Width 388
Radiation Patterns 390
Laser Modulation 393
Chirp 398
Noise 399
10.4 Transmitter Modules 400
Functional Block Diagram and Typical Circuits of a Transmitter 401
Packaging and Reliability 410
Reading the Transmitter s Data Sheet 413
External Modulators 416
Summary 428
Problems 428
References 433
Chapter11 Receivers 434
11.1 Photodiodes 434
P-n Photodiodes：How They Work 434
Power Relationship 437
Bandwidth 442
P-i-n Photodiodes 445
Avalanche Photodiodes (APDs) 447
MSM Photodetectors 450
11.2 Reading the Data Sheets of Photodiodes 451
Data Sheet of a p-I-n Photodiode 451
Data Sheet of an Avalanche Photodiode 458
Silicon Photodiodes 459
Conclusion 459
11.3 More About Photodetectors 460
Noise Sources in a Photodiode 460
Signal-to-Noise Ratio and Noise-Equivalent Power 465
Sensitivity and Quantum Limit 470
Functonal Block Diagram and Tyical Circuits of a Receiver 476
11.4 Receiver Units 476
Decision-Circuit Design 482
Reading a Receiver s Data Sheet 487
Opto-Electronic IC (OEIC) 490
Summary 491
Problems 493
References 497
Chapter12 Components of Fiber-Optic Networks 499
12.1 Fiber-Optic Networks：An Overview 499
Point-to-Point Links 499
Networks 501
Transmitters 511
12.1 Transceivers for Fiber-OPtic Networks 511
Receivers 520
12.3 Semiconductor OPtical Amplifiers 523
Optical Amplifiers：General Considerations 524
Principle of Operation of a Semiconductor Optical Amplifier (SOA) 526
Gain of an SOA 526
Bandwidth of an SOA 532
Crosstalk 534
Polarization-Dependent Gain 536
Noise 536
Reading The Data Sheet of an SOA 540
SOA Applications 541
SOAs：Advantages and Drawbacks 541
12.4 Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers (EDFAs) 542
How Amplification Occurs 542
C-Band and L-Band 545
Gain and Noise in an Erbium-Doped Fiber 545
Components of an EDFA Module 551
Reading an EDFA Data Sheet 569
Other Types of Optical Fiber Amplifiers 577
Summary 579
Problems 581
References 584
Chapter13 Passive Components, Switches, and Functional Modules of Fiber-Optic Networks 586
13.1 Couplers/Splitters 586
Fused Biconical Taper (FBT) Couplers-Their Principle of Operation 586
Reading a Data Sheet 588
FBT Couplers：How to Make a WDM Coupler 597
Phase Mismatch 601
13.2 Wavelenght-Division Multiplexers and Demultiplexers 603
WDM MUX/DEMUX and Couplers 604
WDM MUXs and DEMUXs：How They Work 606
WDM MUX/DEMUX Applications-Add/Duop and Routers 614
13.3 Filers 616
Optical Filters：What They Are 616
Fixed Filters 619
Tunable Filters 622
13.4 Isolators, Circulators, and Attenuators 627
Isolators 627
Circulators 633
Attenuators 634
Optical Switches 637
13.5 Optical Switches and Functional Modules 637
Wavelength Converters 642
Functional Modules 643
Conclusion 646
Summary 647
Problems 648
References 649
Chapter14 An Introduction to Fiber-Optic Networks 651
14.1 The What and How of Data Transmission 652
What to Transmit：Vocice, Video, and Data 652
Telephone Networks 652
Computer Networks 662
14.2 Elements of the Architecture of Fiber-Optic Networks 673
Networks, Protocols, and Services 673
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model 674
SONET Networks and Layers 680
ATM Networks and Layers 683
Layered Architecture of Fiber-Optic Networks 685
Optical Layer 687
14.3 Network Management and the Future of Fiber-OPtic Networks 691
The Functions of Network Management 691
How Network Management Is Implemented 692
Fiber-Opetic-Network Survivability (Protection and Restoration) 694
Cable TV 699
Conclusion：The Future of Fiber-Opti Networks 700
Summary 703
Problems 707
References 709
Chapter15 Conclusion 712
15.1 Bandwidth：The Industry s Holy Grail 712
15.2 Deployment of New Fiber-Optic Lines 713
15.3 Optical Fiber：Problems Galore, Solutions Sought 714
15.4 Fiber-Optic Components 715
15.5 Wavelenght-Division Multiplexing：A Dire Need Met 717
15.6 Networks 717
15.7 Wireless Communications and Fiber-Optic Networks 719
Summing UP 719
References 719
AppendixA List of Constants, Powers of Ten, International System of Units, Deciobel Units, and the Greek Alphabet 721
AppendixB Acronyms, Abbreviations, Symbols, and Units Used in this Book 724
AppendixC A Selected Bibliography 731
AppendixD Products, Services, and Standards 740
Index 743