1 Introduction 1
1.1 What is a tort? 1
1.2 The classification of torts 3
1.3 The organisation of this book 4
Preface 7
Table of Cases 8
Part Ⅰ THE TORT OF NEGLIGENCE 9
2 Negligence:introduction 9
2.1 Origins 9
2.2 The elements of the tort of negligence 10
2.3 Negligence:a developing tort 11
2.4 The objectives of negligence law 13
Summary 16
Exercises 16
3 The duty of care concept 17
3.1 The nature of the duty of care concept 17
3.2 Testing the existence of a duty of care 18
3.3 Caparo and the retreat from Anns 19
Table of Statutes 20
3.4 Foreseeability 21
3.5 Proximity 23
3.6 Fairness,justice and reasonableness 25
Summary 29
Exercises 29
4.1 What is nervous shock? 30
4 Nervous shock 30
4.2 Competing judicial approaches 31
4.3 Personal exposure to the risk of physical harm 33
4.4 Witnesses 35
4.5 Other categories of claimant 39
4.6 Liability for stress 42
4.7 Reform 43
Summary 45
Exercises 46
5 Economic loss 47
5.1 What is pure economic loss ? 47
5.2 Defective product economic loss 48
5.3 Exceptional liability for pure economic loss 53
5.4 Direct assumption of responsibility 56
5.5 Indirect reliance 62
5.6 Indirect loss without reliance 65
5.7 Hedley Byrne and the contract-tort boundary 68
Summary 71
Exercises 72
6 Omissions 73
6.1 Introduction 73
6.2 Voluntary assumption of responsibility 74
6.3 Protection of the vulnerable 75
6.4 Acts of third parties and relationships of control 75
6.5 Creation of a source of danger 77
6.6 Owners and occupiers of land 78
6.7 Statutory powers and duties 80
Exercises 83
Summary 83
7 Special duty problems:particular parties 84
7.1 Rescuers 84
7.2 The unborn child 86
7.3 Public bodies 88
7.4 The police 93
7.5 The legal profession 95
Summary 96
Exercises 97
8 Breach of the duty of care 98
8.1 Introduction 98
8.2 The objective standard of care 98
8.3 Application of the objective standard 100
8.4 Common practice 102
8.5 Proof of negligence 103
Summary 105
Exercises 105
9 Causation 107
9.1 Causation in fact and the but for test 107
9.2 Multiple causation 109
9.3 Proof of causation in fact 112
9.4 Legal causation 115
Summary 119
Exercises 119
10 Remoteness of damage 121
10.1 The Wagon Mound test of remoteness 121
10.2 The concept of foreseeability examined 122
10.3 The type of loss requirement 123
10.4 The thin skull rule 125
10.5 Impecuniosity 126
Summary 126
Exercises 127
11 Defences 128
11.1 Voluntary assumption of risk:introduction 128
11.2 Voluntary assumption of risk:waivers of liability 130
11.3 Volenti non fit iniuria 131
11.4 Unfair Contract Terms Act 1977 135
11.5 Contributory negligence 137
11.6 Illegality 138
Summary 141
Exercises 142
Part Ⅱ INTERFERENCE WITH THE PERSON AND PERSONAL PROPERTY 145
12 Interference with the person and personal property 145
12.1 Overview 145
12.2 Fault-based and strict liability 146
12.3 Compensation for personal injuries 147
12.4 The mixed system of accident compensation 148
12.5 The Pearson Commission proposals 150
12.6 Comprehensive compensation schemes 152
Summary 153
Exercises 154
13 Occupiers liability 155
13.1 Introduction 155
13.2 Scope of the Occupiers Liability Act 1957 155
13.3 Who is an occupier? 156
13.4 Who is a visitor? 157
13.5 The common duty of care 160
13.6 Defences 163
13.7 Liability of trespassers 164
13.8 The Occupiers Liability Act 1984 164
Summary 167
Exercises 168
14 Product liability 169
14.1 Product liability at common law 169
14.2 Reform:the Consumer Protection Act 1987 170
14.3 Meaning of product 171
14.4 Meaning of defect 172
14.5 Who can be liable under the Act? 174
14.6 Who can recover under the Act? 175
14.7 Defences 176
Summary 179
Exercises 179
15 Breach of statutory duty 180
15.1 Introduction 180
15.2 Inferring the existence of the tort 181
15.3 Ascertaining Parliament s intention 183
15.4 Elements of the tort 190
15.5 Reform 191
Summary 192
Exercises 193
16.2 Trespass and negligence 194
16.1 Introduction 194
16 Trespass to the person 194
16.3 Assault and battery 196
16.4 False imprisonment 201
16.5 Intentional infliction of physical harm other than trespass to the person:Wilkinson v.Downton 204
16.6 Damages 206
16.7 Defences to trespass to the person 206
Summary 213
Exercises 213
Part Ⅲ INTERFERENCE WITH LAND 219
17 Interference with land:introduction 219
17.1 Property,tort and crime 219
17.2 Trespass,nuisance and negligence 220
Summary 221
18 Private nuisance 222
18.1 The nature of private nuisance 222
18.2 Protected rights and interests 222
18.3 Unlawful interference 225
18.4 Who can sue? 232
18.5 Who can be liable? 233
18.6 Defences 235
18.7 Nuisances on or adjacent to the highway 237
18.8 The relationship between nuisance and negligence 238
Summary 240
Exercises 241
19 The rule in Rylands v.Fletcher 242
19.1 Introduction 242
19.2 Non-natural use of land 243
19.3 Escape 244
19.4 Remoteness of damage 244
19.5 Parties 245
19.6 Defences 246
19.7 Fire 247
Summary 248
Exercises 248
Part Ⅳ INTERFERENCE WITH REPUTATION 251
20 Defamation 251
20.1 Interference with personality generally 251
20.2 The law of defamation 255
20.3 The statement must be defamatory 255
20.4 The statement must be published to a third person 259
20.5 Reference to the plaintiff 261
20.6 Damage:the distinction between libel and slander 263
20.7 Defences 264
20.8 Damages 278
Summary 279
Exercises 280
Part Ⅴ GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TORTIOUS LIABILITY 285
21 Vicarious liability and joint torts 285
21.1 Introduction 285
21.2 Justifications for vicarious liability 286
21.3 Master and servant relationship 286
21.4 The course of employment 288
21.5 Liability for independent contractors 291
21.6 Joint and several liability:the distinction between joint,several concurrent and separate tortfeasors 293
21.7 Contribution between tortfeasors 294
Summary 296
Exercises 297
22 Remedies 298
22.1 The indemnity principle 298
22.2 Contemptuous,nominal,aggravated and exemplary damages 298
22.3 Damages recoverable once only 306
22.4 Special and general damages 310
22.5 Damages for personal injuries 310
22.6 The assessment of an award of damages 311
22.7 Non-pecuniary loss 312
22.8 Pecuniary loss 315
22.10 Collateral benefits 327
22.9 Interest 327
22.11 Damages for death 329
22.12 The effect of death on existing causes of action:the Law Reform(Miscellaneous Provisions)Act 1934 329
22.13 Claims by the deceased s dependants:the Fatal Accidents Act 1976 330
22.14 Assessment of damages for loss of dependency 332
22.15 Apportionment between dependants 335
22.16 Deductions in dependency cases 335
22.17 Property damage and economic loss 336
22.18 Injunctions 339
Summary 341
Exercises 342
Bibliography 345
Index 349