IndexI 1
Holographic Overview 1
PART 1
PART 1
AppendixesA 1
Contents in Detail 1
Prefacexvi 1
BibliographyB 1
AppendixesA 1
GlossaryG 1
Using the LibraryA 2
AUsing the LibraryA 2
PART 2
PART 2
PART 3
PART 3
PART 4
PART 4
PART 5
PART 5
BSocial Research in CyberspaceA 8
Social Research in CyberspaceA 8
An Introduction to Inquiry 14
An Introduction to Inquiry 14
1Human Inquiry and Science 16
The Research ReportA 16
Human Inquiry and Science 16
CThe Research ReportA 16
Introduction 17
Looking for Reality 18
Ordinary Human Inquiry 18
Tradition 19
Authority 19
Errors in Inquiry,and Some Solutions 20
What s Really Real? 21
GSS Household Enumeration 23
QuestionnaireA 23
DGSS Household Enumeration QuestionnaireA 23
The Foundations of Social Science 24
Theory,Not Philosophy or Belief 25
Social Regularities 25
Aggregates,Not Individuals 27
A Variable Language 28
Some Dialectics of Social Science 33
ERandom NumbersA 33
Random NumbersA 33
Idiographic and Nomothetic Explanation 33
Inductive and Deductive Theory 34
FDistribution of Chi SquareA 35
Distribution of Chi SquareA 35
Qualitative and Quantitative Data 36
The Ethics of Social Research 37
Normal Curve AreasA 37
GNormal Curve AreasA 37
Estimated Sampling ErrorA 38
HEstimated Sampling ErrorA 38
No Harm to Subjects 38
MAIN POINTS 38
Voluntary Participation 38
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 39
KEY TERMS 39
A Learner s Guide to SPSS 8.0A 40
ADDITIONAL READINGS 40
SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 40
INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 40
2Paradigms,Theory,and Social Research 41
Research 41
Paradigms,Theory,and Social 41
Introduction 42
Some Social Science Paradigms 42
Social Darwinsm 44
Macrotheory and Microtheory 44
Early Positivism 44
Conflict Paradigm 45
Symbolic Interactionism 46
IA Learner s Guide to SPSS 8.0A 46
Ethnomethodology 46
Structural Functionalism 47
Feminist Paradigms 48
Rational Objectivity Reconsidered 49
Elements of Social Theory 51
Two Logical Systems Revisited 53
The Traditional Model of Science 53
Deductive and Inductive Reasoning:A CaseIllustration 55
A Graphic Contrast 58
Constructing Your Theory 60
Deductive Theory Construction 60
Getting Started 60
An Example of Deductive Theory: 61
Distributive Justice 61
Inductive Theory Construction 63
An Example of Inductive Theory:Why DoPeople Smoke Marijuana? 63
The Links Between Theory and Research 64
MAIN POINTS 65
KEY TERMS 66
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 66
ADDITIONAL READINGS 66
SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 67
INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 67
The Idea of Causation in Social 68
3The Idea of Causation in Social Research 68
Research 68
Finding Causes in Social Science 69
Introduction 69
Determinism and Social Science 69
Causation in the Natural Sciences 69
Reasons Have Reasons 70
Determinism in Perspective 71
Causation in Idiographic and NomotheticModels of Explanation 72
Twenty Questions a Journalist Should 75
Ask about Poll ResultsA 75
JTwenty Questions a Journalist Should Askabout Poll ResultsA 75
Criteria for Causality 75
Necessary and Sufficient Causes 78
Errors in Reasoning About Causation 81
False Dilemma 82
Suppressed Evidence 82
Provincialism 82
Hasty Conclusion 82
Questionable Cause 82
Associating Variables 83
Practical Problems in Measuring and 83
Linking Measurement and Association 83
Association 84
An Example of Measurement and 84
MAIN POINTS 85
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 86
KEY TERMS 86
INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 87
SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 87
ADDITIONAL READINGS 87
The Structure of Inquiry 88
The Structure of Inquiry 88
4Research Design 90
Research Design 90
Exploration 91
Introduction 91
Three Purposes of Research 91
Explanation 92
Description 92
Units of Analysis 94
Individuals 95
Social Artifacts 96
Groups 96
Organizations 96
Units of Analysis in Review 97
and Reductionism 100
Faulty Reasoning about Units 100
of Analysis:The Ecological Fallacy 100
Cross-Sectional Studies 101
The Time Dimension 101
Longitudinal Studies 102
Approximating Longitudinal Studies 104
Examples of Research Strategies 106
How To Design a Research Project 107
Conceptualization 109
Getting Started 109
Population and Sampling 110
Choice of Research Method 110
Operationalization 110
Analysis 111
Observations 111
Data Processing 111
Research Design in Review 112
Application 112
Elements of a Research Proposal 113
The Research Proposal 113
MAIN POINTS 114
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 115
KEY TERMS 115
ADDITIONAL READINGS 116
INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 117
ANSWERS TO REVIEW QUESTIONS AND 117
EXERCISES,ITEM 2 117
SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 117
5Conceptualization,Operationalization,and Measurement 118
Conceptualization,Operationaliza- 118
tion,and Measurement 118
Introduction 119
Measuring Anything That Exists 119
Conceptions,Concepts,and Reality 120
Conceptions as Constructs 121
Conceptualization 122
Indicators and Dimensions 123
The Interchangeability of Indicators 124
Real,Nominal,and Operational 124
Definitions 124
Creating Conceptual Order 125
An Example of Conceptualization: 126
The Concept of Anomie 126
Definitions in Descriptive and ExplanatoryStudies 129
Operationalization Choices 132
Range of Variation 132
Variations between the Extremes 133
A Note on Dimensions 133
Defining Variables and Attributes 134
Levels of Measurement 134
Single or Multiple Indicators 138
Some Illustrations of OperationalizationChoices 138
Operationalization Goes On and On 139
Criteria of Measurement Quality 140
Precision and Accuracy 140
Reliability 140
Validity 143
Who Decides What s Valid? 144
Tension between Reliability and 145
Validity 145
MAIN POINTS 145
KEY TERMS 146
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 146
ADDITIONAL READINGS 147
SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 147
INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 147
Indexes,Scales,and Typologies 148
6Indexes,Scales,and Typologies 148
Introduction 149
Indexes versus Scales 149
Index Construction 152
Item Selection 152
Examination of Empirical Relationships 153
Index Scoring 158
Handling Missing Data 160
Index Validation 162
The Status of Women:An Illustration 164
of Index Construction 164
Scale Construction 165
Thurstone Scales 166
Bogardus Social Distance Scale 166
Likert Scaling 167
Guttman Scaling 168
Semantic Differential 168
Typologies 171
KEY TERMS 173
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 173
MAIN POINTS 173
ADDITIONAL READINGS 174
INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 174
SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 174
The Logic of Sampling 175
7The Logic of Sampling 175
Introduction 176
A Brief History of Sampling 177
President Alf Landon 177
Two Types of Sampling Methods 178
President Thomas E.Dewey 178
Nonprobability Sampling 178
Reliance on Available Subjects 179
Purposive or Judgmental Sampling 179
Quota Sampling 180
Snowball Sampling 180
Selecting Informants 181
The Theory and Logic of Probability 182
Sampling Bias 182
Conscious and Unconscious 182
Sampling 182
Representativeness and Probability 184
of Selection 184
Random Selection 185
Probability Theory,Sampling Distributions,and Estimates of Sample Error 186
Populations and Sampling Frames 194
Frames 196
Review of Populations and Sampling 196
Simple Random Sampling 197
Types of Sampling Designs 197
Systematic Sampling 197
Stratified Sampling 201
Implicit Stratification in SystematicSampling 202
Students 203
Illustration:Sampling University 203
Multistage Designs and Sampling Error 204
Multistage Cluster Sampling 204
Sampling 205
Probability Proportionate to Size(PPS)Sampling 205
Stratification in Multistage Cluster 205
Disproportionate Sampling and 208
Weighting 208
Illustration:Sampling Churchwomen 210
Probability Sampling in Review 211
MAIN POINTS 212
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 213
SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 213
INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 213
ADDITIONAL READINGS 213
KEY TERMS 213
Modes of Observation 214
Modes of Observation 214
8Experiments 216
Experiments 216
The Classical Experiment 217
Introduction 217
Topics Appropriate to Experiments 217
Pretesting and Posttesting 218
Independent and Dependent Variables 218
Experimental and Control Groups 219
The Double-Blind Experiment 220
Selecting Subjects 221
Probability Sampling 221
Randomization 222
Matching 222
Matching or Randomization? 223
Preexperimental Research Designs 224
Variations on Experimental Design 224
Research 225
Validity Issues in Experimental 225
An Illustration of Experimentation 230
Natural Experiments 232
Strengths and Weaknesses of the 234
Experimental Method 234
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 235
MAIN POINTS 235
KEY TERMS 235
SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 236
INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 236
ADDITIONAL READINGS 236
Survey Research 237
9Survey Research 237
Introduction 238
Topics Appropriate for Survey Research 238
Choose Appropriate Question Forms 239
Guidelines for Asking Questions 239
Make Items Clear 240
Avoid Double-Barreled Questions 241
Respondents Must Be Competent 241
to Answer 241
Questions Should Be Relevant 243
Short Items Are Best 243
Answer 243
Respondents Must Be Willing to 243
Avoid Biased Items and Terms 244
Avoid Negative Items 244
Questionnaire Construction 245
General Questionnaire Format 245
Contingency Questions 246
Formats for Respondents 246
Matrix Questions 248
Ordering Items in a Questionnaire 249
Questionnaire Instructions 249
Pretesting the Questionnaire 250
Mail Distribution and Return 253
Self-Administered Questionnaires 253
A Composite Illustration 253
Monitoring Returns 254
Follow-up Mailings 255
Acceptable Response Rates 256
A Case Study 257
Interview Surveys 258
The Role of the Survey Interviewer 258
Interviewing 259
General Guidelines for Survey 259
Coordination and Control 261
Telephone Surveys 262
Interviewing(CATI) 265
Computer Assisted Telephone 265
New Technologies and Survey Research 265
Comparison of the Different Survey 267
Methods 267
Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey 268
Research 268
Secondary Analysis 269
MAIN POINTS 270
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 271
KEY TERMS 271
ADDITIONAL READINGS 272
INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 273
SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 273
Qualitative Field Research 274
10Qualitative Field Research 274
Introduction 275
Topics Appropriate to Field Research 275
Special Considerations in Qualitative 277
Field Research 277
The Various Roles of the Observer 278
Relations to Subjects 279
Naturalism 281
Some Qualitative Field Research 281
Paradigms 281
Ethnomethodology 282
Grounded Theory 284
Case Method 285
Case Studies and the Extended 285
Institutional Ethnography 287
Participatory Action Research 288
Preparing for the Field 290
Conducting Qualitative Field Research 290
Qualitative Interviewing 291
Focus Groups 294
Recording Observations 295
Validity 298
Strengths and Weaknesses of QualitativeField Research 298
Reliability 299
Research Ethics in Qualitative Field 300
MAIN POINTS 300
Research 300
KEY TERMS 301
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 301
ADDITIONAL READINGS 301
SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 302
INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 302
11Unobtrusive Measures 303
Unobtrusive Measures 303
Introduction 304
Content Analysis 304
Sampling in Content Analysis 305
Topics Appropriate to Content Analysis 305
Coding in Content Analysis 309
An Illustration of Content Analysis 313
Analysis 314
Strengths and Weaknesses of Content 314
Durkheim s Study of Suicide 315
Analyzing Existing Statistics 315
Units of Analysis 316
Problems of Reliability 318
Problems of Validity 318
Sources of Existing Statistics 319
Examples of Historical/Comparative 322
Analysis 322
Historical/Comparative Analysis 322
Sources of Historical/Comparative Data 325
Analytical Techniques 327
MAIN POINTS 328
KEY TERMS 329
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 329
ADDITIONAL READINGS 329
INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 330
SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 330
Evaluation Research 331
12Evaluation Research 331
Introduction 332
Topics Appropriate to Evaluation 333
Research 333
Formulating the Problem:Issues 334
of Measurement 334
Specifying Outcomes 335
Measuring Experimental Contexts 336
Specifying the Population 336
Specifying Interventions 336
New versus Existing Measures 337
Operationalizing Success/Failure 337
Types of Evaluation Research Designs 338
Experimental Designs 338
Quasi-Experimental Designs 339
Qualitative Evaluations 342
The Social Context 344
Logistical Problems 344
Some Ethical Issues 346
Use of Research Results 346
Social Indicators Research 351
The Death Penalty and Deterrence 352
Computer Simulation 353
ADDITIONAL READINGS 354
MAIN POINTS 354
KEY TERMS 354
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 354
SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 355
INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 355
Analysis of Data 356
Analysis of Data 356
Qualitative Data Analysis 358
13Qualitative Data Analysis 358
Introduction 359
Linking Theory and Analysis 359
Discovering Patterns 359
Grounded Theory Method 361
Semiotics 362
Coding 364
Conversation Analysis 364
Qualitative Data Processing 364
Memoing 368
Concept Mapping 369
Computer Programs for Qualitative Data 370
Leviticus as Seen through NUD*IST 371
Sandrine Zerbib:Understanding Women 376
Film Directors 376
MAIN POINTS 380
KEY TERMS 381
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 381
SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 382
INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 382
ADDITIONAL READINGS 382
Quantifying Data 383
14Quantifying Data 383
Introduction 384
Computers in Social Research 384
Coding 387
Developing Code Categories 387
Codebook Construction 389
Coding and Data Entry Options 390
Transfer Sheets 391
Edge-Coding 391
Direct Data Entry 391
Data Entry by Interviewers 391
Connecting with a Data-Analysis 392
Coding to Optical Scan Sheets 392
Program 392
Direct Use of Optical Scan Sheets 392
Data Cleaning 392
Possible-Code Cleaning 393
Contingency Cleaning 393
MAIN POINTS 393
ADDITIONAL READINGS 394
KEY TERMS 394
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 394
SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 395
INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 395
15Elementary Quantitative Analyses 396
Elementary Quantitative 396
Analyses 396
Introduction 397
Univariate Analysis 397
Distributions 397
Central Tendency 398
Dispersion 401
Detail versus Manageability 402
Continuous and Discrete Variables 402
Subgroup Comparisons 403
Collapsing Response Categories 404
Handling Don t Knows 404
Research 406
Bivariate Analysis 406
Numerical Descriptions in Qualitative 406
Constructing and Reading Bivariate 408
Percentaging a Table 408
Tables 408
Introduction to Multivariate Analysis 412
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 414
KEY WORDS 414
MAIN POINTS 414
SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 415
INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 415
ADDITIONAL READINGS 415
16The Elaboration Model 416
The Elaboration Model 416
Introduction 417
The Origins of the Elaboration Model 417
The Elaboration Paradigm 421
Replication 422
Explanation 423
Interpretation 425
Specification 425
Refinements to the Paradigm 428
Elaboration and Ex Post Facto 430
Hypothesizing 430
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 432
MAIN POINTS 432
KEY TERMS 432
INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 433
ADDITIONAL READINGS 433
SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 433
Social Statistics 434
17Social Statistics 434
Introduction 435
The Danger of Success in Math 435
Descriptive Statistics 436
Data Reduction 436
Measures of Association 437
Regression Analysis 442
Other Multivariate Techniques 446
Path Analysis 446
Time-Series Analysis 448
Factor Analysis 449
Univariate Inferences 452
Inferential Statistics 452
Tests of Statistical Significance 453
The Logic of Statistical Significance 453
Chi Square 459
MAIN POINTS 463
ADDITIONAL READINGS 464
SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 464
KEY TERMS 464
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 464
INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 465
of Research 466
The Social Context 466
The Social Context of Research 466
Research 468
18The Ethics and Politics of Social Research 468
The Ethics and Politics of Social 468
Introduction 469
Voluntary Participation 470
Ethical Issues in Social Research 470
No Harm to the Participants 471
Anonymity and Confidentiality 472
Deception 474
Analysis and Reporting 475
Institutional Review Boards 476
Professional Codes of Ethics 477
Observing Human Obedience 479
Two Ethical Controversies 479
Trouble in the Tearoom 479
The Politics of Social Research 481
Objectivity and Ideology 481
Politics with a Little P 484
Politics in Perspective 485
KEY TERMS 487
REVIEW QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 487
MAIN POINTS 487
ADDITIONAL READINGS 488
SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 489
INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 489
The Uses of Social Research 490
19The Uses of Social Research 490
Introduction 491
Theory—Data Collection—Analysis 491
Everyday Uses of Social Research Skills 492
A Consumer s Guide to Social Research 493
Measurement 494
Research Design 494
Experiments 495
Sampling 495
Survey Research 496
Field Research 496
Analyzing Existing Statistics 497
Evaluation Research 497
Data Analysis 497
Reporting 498
SOCIOLOGY WEB SITE 498
INFOTRAC COLLEGE EDITION 498
Conclusion 498