Part 1 Water Reuse:An Introduction 1
1 Water Issues:Current Status and the Role of Water Reclamation and Reuse 3
Working Terminology 4
1-1 Definition of Terms 6
1-2 Principles of Sustainable Water Resources Management 6
The principle of sustainability 7
Working definitions of sustainability 7
Challenges for sustainability 7
Criteria for sustainable water resources management 7
Environmental ethics 13
1-3 Current and Potential Future Global Water Shortages 15
Impact of current and projected world population 15
Potential global water shortages 19
Water scarcity 19
Potential regional water shortages in the continental United States 20
1-4 The Important Role of Water Reclamation and Reuse 23
Types of water reuse 24
Integrated water resources planning 24
Personnel needs/sustainable engineering 27
Treatment and technology needs 27
Infrastructure and planning issues 28
1-5 Water Reclamation and Reuse and Its Future 30
Implementation hurdles 31
Public support 31
Acceptance varies depending on opportunity and necessity 31
Public water supply from polluted water sources 31
Advances in water reclamation technologies 31
Challenges for water reclamation and reuse 32
Problems and Discussion Topics 32
References 33
2 Water Reuse:Past and Current Practices 37
Working Terminology 38
2-1 Evolution of Water Reclamation and Reuse 39
Historical development prior to 1960 39
Era of water reclamation and reuse in the United States-post-1960 41
2-2 Impact of State and Federal Statutes on Water Reclamation and Reuse 45
The Clean Water Act 45
The Safe Drinking Water Act 46
2-3 Water Reuse—Current Status in the United States 46
Withdrawal of water from surface and groundwater sources 46
Availability and reuse of treated wastewater 46
Milestone water reuse projects and research studies 47
2-4 Water Reuse in California:A Case Study 47
Experience with water reuse 47
Current water reuse status 48
Water reuse policies and recycling regulations 51
Potential future uses of reclaimed water 52
2-5 Water Reuse in Florida:A Case Study 53
Experience with water reuse 54
Current water reuse status 54
Water reuse policies and recycling regulations 56
Potential future uses of reclaimed water 56
2-6 Water Reuse in Other Parts of the World 58
Significant developments worldwide 58
The World Health Organization's water reuse guidelines 59
Water reuse in developing countries 59
2-7 Summary and Lessons Learned 63
Problems and Discussion Topics 65
References 66
Part 2 Health and Environmental Concerns in Water Reuse 71
3 Characteristics of Municipal Wastewater and Related Health and Environmental Issues 73
Working Terminology 74
3-1 Wastewater in Public Water Supplies—de facto Potable Reuse 77
Presence of treated wastewater in public water supplies 78
Impact of the presence of treated wastewater on public water supplies 78
3-2 Introduction to Waterborne Diseases and Health Issues 78
Important historical events 79
Waterborne disease 80
Etiology of waterborne disease 81
3-3 Waterborne Pathogenic Microorganisms 83
Terminology conventions for organisms 83
Log removal 83
Bacteria 83
Protozoa 87
Helminths 89
Viruses 89
3-4 Indicator Organisms 92
Characteristics of an ideal indicator organism 92
The coliform group bacteria 93
Bacteriophages 93
Other indicator organisms 94
3-5 Occurrence of Microbial Pathogens in Untreated and Treated Wastewater and in the Environment 94
Pathogens in untreated wastewater 94
Pathogens in treated wastewater 97
Pathogens in the environment 102
Survival of pathogenic organisms 102
3-6 Chemical Constituents in Untreated and Treated Wastewater 103
Chemical constituents in untreated wastewater 103
Constituents added through domestic commercial and industrial usage 104
Chemical constituents in treated wastewater 108
Formation of disinfection byproducts(DBPs) 113
Comparison of treated wastewater to natural water 114
Use of surrogate parameters 115
3-7 Emerging Contaminants in Water and Wastewater 117
Endocrine disruptors and pharmaceutically active chemicals 117
Some specific constituents with emerging concern 118
New and reemerging microorganisms 120
3-8 Environmental Issues 120
Effects on soils and plants 121
Effects on surface water and groundwater 121
Effects on ecosystems 121
Effects on development and land use 122
Problems and Discussion Topics 122
References 124
4 Water Reuse Regulations and Guidelines 131
Working Terminology 132
4-1 Understanding Regulatory Terminology 134
Standard and criterion 134
Standard versus criterion 134
Regulation 135
Difference between regulations and guidelines 135
Water reclamation and reuse 135
4-2 Development of Standards,Regulations,and Guidelines for Water Reuse 135
Basis for water quality standards 136
Development of water reuse regulations and guidelines 136
The regulatory process 139
4-3 General Regulatory Considerations Related to Water Reclamation and Reuse 139
Constituents and physical properties of concern in wastewater 139
Wastewater treatment and water quality considerations 142
Reclaimed water quality monitoring 145
Storage requirements 146
Reclaimed water application rates 147
Aerosols and windborne sprays 147
4-4 Regulatory Considerations for Specific Water Reuse Applications 149
Agricultural irrigation 149
Landscape irrigation 150
Dual distribution systems and in-building uses 151
Impoundments 152
Industrial uses 153
Other nonpotable uses 153
Groundwater recharge 154
4-5 Regulatory Considerations for Indirect Potable Reuse 155
Use of the most protected water source 155
Influence of the two water acts 155
Concerns for trace chemical constituents and pathogens 156
Assessment of health risks 157
4-6 State Water Reuse Regulations 157
Status of water reuse regulations and guidelines 158
Regulations and guidelines for specific reuse applications 158
Regulatory requirements for nonpotable uses of reclaimed water 165
State regulations for indirect potable reuse 167
4-7 U.S.EPA Guidelines for Water Reuse 169
Disinfection requirements 169
Microbial limits 178
Control measures 178
Recommendations for indirect potable reuse 178
4-8 World Health Organization Guidelines for Water Reuse 179
1989 WHO guidelines for agriculture and aquaculture 180
The Stockholm framework 180
Disability adjusted life years 180
Concept of tolerable(acceptable)risk 181
Tolerable microbial risk in water 181
2006 WHO guidelines for the safe use of wastewater in agriculture 182
4-9 Future Directions in Regulations and Guidelines 184
Continuing development of state standards,regulations,and guidelines 184
Technical advances in treatment processes 184
Information needs 184
Problems and Discussion Topics 185
References 187
5 Health Risk Analysis in Water Reuse Applications 191
Working Terminology 192
5-1 Risk Analysis:An Overview 193
Historical development of risk assessment 194
Objectives and applications of human health risk assessment 194
Elements of risk analysis 194
Risk analysis:definitions and concepts 196
5-2 Health Risk Assessment 197
Hazard identification 198
Dose-response assessment 198
Dose-response models 200
Exposure assessment 204
Risk characterization 204
Comparison of human health and ecological risk assessment 205
5-3 Risk Management 205
5-4 Risk Communication 206
5-5 Tools and Methods Used in Risk Assessment 207
Concepts from public health 207
Concepts from epidemiology 208
Concepts from toxicology 209
National toxicology program cancer bioassay 213
Ecotoxicology:environmental effects 214
5-6 Chemical Risk Assessment 215
Safety and risk determination in regulation of chemical agents 215
Risks from potential nonthreshold toxicants 220
Risk considerations 224
Chemical risk assessment summary 225
5-7 Microbial Risk Assessment 225
Infectious disease paradigm for microbial risk assessment 225
Microbial risk assessment methods 227
Static microbial risk assessment models 227
Dynamic microbial risk assessment models 229
Selecting a microbial risk model 232
5-8 Application of Microbial Risk Assessment in Water Reuse Applications 234
Microbial risk assessment employing a static model 234
Microbial risk assessment employing dynamic models 239
Risk assessment for water reuse from enteric viruses 244
5-9 Limitations in Applying Risk Assessment to Water Reuse Applications 249
Relative nature of risk assessment 249
Inadequate consideration of secondary infections 249
Limited dose-response data 250
Problems and Discussion Topics 250
References 251
Part 3 Technologies and Systems for Water Reclamation and Reuse 255
6 Water Reuse Technologies and Treatment Systems:An Overview 257
Working Terminology 258
6-1 Constituents in Untreated Municipal Wastewater 260
6-2 Technology Issues in Water Reclamation and Reuse 260
Water reuse applications 262
Water quality requirements 262
Multiple barrier concept 263
Need for multiple treatment technologies 265
6-3 Treatment Technologies for Water Reclamation Applications 265
Removal of dissolved organic matter,suspended solids,and nutrients by secondary treatment 268
Removal of residual particulate matter in secondary effluent 269
Removal of residual dissolved constituents 271
Removal of trace constituents 271
Disinfection processes 271
6-4 Important Factors in the Selection of Technologies for Water Reuse 272
Multiple water reuse applications 273
Need to remove trace constituents 273
Need to conduct pilot-scale testing 276
Process reliability 276
Standby and redundancy considerations 279
Infrastructure needs for water reuse applications 280
6-5 Impact of Treatment Plant Location on Water Reuse 281
Centralized treatment plants 282
Satellite treatment facilities 282
Decentralized treatment facilities 283
6-6 The Future of Water Reclamation Technologies and Treatment Systems 286
Implication of trace constituents on future water reuse 287
New regulations 287
Retrofitting existing treatment plants 288
New treatment plants 289
Satellite treatment systems 289
Decentralized treatment facilities and systems 289
New infrastructure concepts and designs 290
Research needs 291
Problems and Discussion Topics 292
References 293
7 Removal of Constituents by Secondary Treatment 295
Working Terminology 296
7-1 Constituents in Untreated Wastewater 299
Constituents of concern 299
Typical constituent concentration values 299
Variability of mass loadings 301
7-2 Technologies for Water Reuse Applications 304
7-3 Nonmembrane Processes for Secondary Treatment 307
Suitability for reclaimed water applications 307
Process descriptions 308
Process performance expectations 310
Importance of secondary sedimentation tank design 318
7-4 Nonmembrane Processes for the Control and Removal of Nutrients in Secondary Treatment 320
Nitrogen control 320
Nitrogen removal 321
Phosphorus removal 324
Process performance expectations 328
7-5 Membrane Bioreactor Processes for Secondary Treatment 328
Description of membrane bioreactors 330
Suitability of MBRs for reclaimed water applications 331
Types of membrane bioreactor systems 332
Principal proprietary submerged membrane systems 333
Other membrane systems 338
Process performance expectations 340
7-6 Analysis and Design of Membrane Bioreactor Processes 340
Process analysis 340
Design considerations 353
Nutrient removal 358
Biosolids processing 361
7-7 Issues in the Selection of Secondary Treatment Processes 361
Expansion of an existing plant vs. construction of a new plant 362
Final use of effluent 362
Comparative performance of treatment processes 362
Pilot-scale studies 362
Type of disinfection process 362
Future water quality requirements 363
Energy considerations 363
Site constraints 364
Economic and other considerations 368
Problems and Discussion Topics 368
References 371
8 Removal of Residual Particulate Matter 373
Working Terminology 374
8-1 Characteristics of Residual Suspended Particulate Matter from Secondary Treatment Processes 375
Residual constituents and properties of concern 375
Removal of residual particles from secondary treatment processes 385
8-2 Technologies for the Removal of Residual Suspended Particulate Matter 388
Technologies for reclaimed water applications 388
Process flow diagrams 390
Process performance expectations 390
Suitability for reclaimed water applications 392
8-3 Depth Filtration 392
Available filtration technologies 392
Performance of depth filters 398
Design considerations 407
Pilot-scale studies 415
Operational issues 417
8-4 Surface Filtration 417
Available filtration technologies 419
Performance of surface filters 422
Design considerations 423
Pilot-scale studies 425
8-5 Membrane Filtration 425
Membrane terminology,types,classification,and flow patterns 426
Microfiltration and ultrafiltration 430
Process analysis for MF and UF membranes 435
Operating characteristics and strategies for MF and UF membranes 436
Membrane performance 436
Design considerations 441
Pilot-scale studies 441
Operational issues 443
8-6 Dissolved Air Flotation 445
Process description 445
Performance of DAF process 448
Design considerations 448
Operating considerations 453
Pilot-scale studies 453
8-7 Issues in the Selection of Technologies for the Removal of Residual Particulate Matter 454
Final use of effluent 454
Comparative performance of technologies 455
Results of pilot-scale studies 455
Type of disinfection process 455
Future water quality requirements 455
Energy considerations 455
Site constraints 455
Economic considerations 455
Problems and Discussion Topics 456
References 459
9 Removal of Dissolved Constituents with Membranes 461
Working Terminology 462
9-1 Introduction to Technologies Used for the Removal of Dissolved Constituents 463
Membrane separation 463
Definition of osmotic pressure 463
Nanofiltration and reverse osmosis 465
Electrodialysis 466
Typical process applications and flow diagrams 467
9-2 Nanofiltration 467
Types of membranes used in nanofiltration 468
Application of nanofiltration 471
Performance expectations 471
9-3 Reverse Osmosis 473
Types of membranes used in reverse osmosis 473
Application of reverse osmosis 474
Performance expectations 474
9-4 Design and Operational Considerations for Nanofiltration and Reverse Osmosis Systems 475
Feedwater considerations 475
Pretreatment 477
Treatability testing 479
Membrane flux and area requirements 482
Membrane fouling 487
Control of membrane fouling 490
Process operating parameters 490
Posttreatment 492
9-5 Pilot-Plant Studies for Nanofiltration and Reverse Osmosis 499
9-6 Electrodialysis 501
Description of the electrodialysis process 501
Electrodialysis reversal 502
Power consumption 503
Design and operating considerations 506
Membrane and electrode life 507
Advantages and disadvantages of electrodialysis versus reverse osmosis 508
9-7 Management of Membrane Waste Streams 509
Membrane concentrate issues 509
Thickening and drying of waste streams 511
Ultimate disposal methods for membrane waste streams 515
Problems and Discussion Topics 519
References 522
10 Removal of Residual Trace Constituents 525
Working Terminology 526
10-1 Introduction to Technologies Used for the Removal of Trace Constituents 528
Separation processes based on mass transfer 528
Chemical and biological transformation processes 531
10-2 Adsorption 532
Applications for adsorption 532
Types of adsorbents 533
Basic considerations for adsorption processes 536
Adsorption process limitations 551
10-3 Ion Exchange 551
Applications for ion exchange 552
Ion exchange materials 554
Basic considerations for ion exchange processes 555
Ion exchange process limitations 559
10-4 Distillation 560
Applications for distillation 560
Distillation processes 560
Basic considerations for distillation processes 562
Distillation process limitations 563
10-5 Chemical Oxidation 563
Applications for conventional chemical oxidation 563
Oxidants used in chemical oxidation processes 563
Basic considerations for chemical oxidation processes 566
Chemical oxidation process limitations 567
10-6 Advanced Oxidation 567
Applications for advanced oxidation 568
Processes for advanced oxidation 569
Basic considerations for advanced oxidation processes 574
Advanced oxidation process limitations 577
10-7 Photolysis 578
Applications for photolysis 578
Photolysis processes 579
Basic considerations for photolysis processes 579
Photolysis process limitations 586
10-8 Advanced Biological Transformations 586
Basic considerations for advanced biological treatment processes 587
Advanced biological treatment processes 588
Limitations of advanced biological transformation processes 590
Problems and Discussion Topics 591
References 594
11 Disinfection Processes for Water Reuse Applications 599
Working Terminology 600
11-1 Disinfection Technologies Used for Water Reclamation 602
Characteristics for an ideal disinfectant 602
Disinfection agents and methods in water reclamation 602
Mechanisms used to explain action of disinfectants 604
Comparison of reclaimed water disinfectants 605
11-2 Practical Considerations and Issues for Disinfection 606
Physical facilities used for disinfection 606
Factors affecting performance 609
Development of the CRt Concept for predicting disinfection performance 616
Application of the CRt concept for reclaimed water disinfection 617
Performance comparison of disinfection technologies 618
Advantages and disadvantages of alternative disinfection technologies 618
11-3 Disinfection with Chlorine 622
Characteristics of chlorine compounds 622
Chemistry of chlorine compounds 624
Breakpoint reaction with chlorine 626
Measurement and reporting of disinfection process variables 631
Germicidal efficiency of chlorine and various chlorine compounds in clean water 631
Form of residual chlorine and contact time 631
Factors that affect disinfection of reclaimed water with chlorine 633
Chemical characteristics of the reclaimed water 635
Modeling the chlorine disinfection process 639
Required chlorine dosages for disinfection 641
Assessing the hydraulic performance of chlorine contact basins 644
Formation and control of disinfection byproducts 650
Environmental impacts 654
11-4 Disinfection with Chlorine Dioxide 654
Characteristics of chlorine dioxide 655
Chlorine dioxide chemistry 655
Effectiveness of chlorine dioxide as a disinfectant 655
Byproduct formation and control 656
Environmental impacts 657
11-5 Dechlorination 657
Dechlorination of reclaimed water treated with chlorine and chlorine compounds 657
Dechlorination of chlorine dioxide with sulfur dioxide 660
11-6 Disinfection with Ozone 660
Ozone properties 660
Ozone chemistry 661
Ozone disinfection systems components 662
Effectiveness of ozone as a disinfectant 666
Modeling the ozone disinfection process 666
Required ozone dosages for disinfection 669
Byproduct formation and control 670
Environmental impacts of using ozone 671
Other benefits of using ozone 671
11-7 Other Chemical Disinfection Methods 671
Peracetic acid 671
Combined chemical disinfection processes 672
11-8 Disinfection with Ultraviolet Radiation 674
Source of UV radiation 674
Types of UV lamps 674
UV disinfection system configurations 678
Mechanism of inactivation by UV irradiation 682
Factors affecting germicidal effectiveness of UV irradiation 684
Modeling the UV disinfection process 690
Estimating UV dose 691
Ultraviolet disinfection guidelines 700
Analysis of a UV disinfection system 708
Operational issues with UV disinfection systems 708
Environmental impacts of UV irradiation 711
Problems and Discussion Topics 712
References 718
12 Satellite Treatment Systems for Water Reuse Applications 725
Working Terminology 726
12-1 Introduction to Satellite Systems 727
Types of satellite treatment systems 728
Important factors in selecting the use of satellite systems 730
12-2 Planning Considerations for Satellite Systems 730
Identification of near-term and future reclaimed water needs 730
Integration with existing facilities 731
Siting considerations 731
Public perception,legal aspects,and institutional issues 734
Economic considerations 735
Environmental considerations 735
Governing regulations 735
12-3 Satellite Systems for Nonagricultural Water Reuse Applications 735
Reuse in buildings 736
Landscape irrigation 736
Lakes and recreational enhancement 736
Groundwater recharge 736
Industrial applications 737
12-4 Collection System Requirements 738
Interception type satellite system 738
Extraction type satellite system 738
Upstream type satellite system 739
12-5 Wastewater Characteristics 739
Interception type satellite system 740
Extraction type satellite system 740
Upstream type satellite system 741
12-6 Infrastructure Facilities for Satellite Treatment Systems 741
Diversion and junction structures 741
Flow equalization and storage 744
Pumping,transmission,and distribution of reclaimed water 745
12-7 Treatment Technologies for Satellite Systems 745
Conventional technologies 745
Membrane bioreactors 746
Sequencing batch reactor 746
12-8 Integration with Existing Facilities 748
12-9 Case Study 1:Solaire Building New York,New York 751
Setting 751
Water management issues 751
Implementation 752
Lessons learned 753
12-10 Case Study 2:Water Reclamation and Reuse in Tokyo,Japan 755
Setting 755
Water management issues 755
Implementation 756
Lessons learned 758
12-11 Case Study 3:City of Upland,California 760
Setting 760
Water management issues 760
Implementation 760
Lessons learned 761
Problems and Discussion Topics 761
References 762
13 Onsite and Decentralized Systems for Water Reuse 763
Working Terminology 764
13-1 Introduction to Decentralized Systems 766
Definition of decentralized systems 766
Importance of decentralized systems 767
Integration with centralized systems 770
13-2 Types of Decentralized Systems 770
Individual onsite systems 771
Cluster systems 771
Housing development and small community systems 772
13-3 Wastewater Flowrates and Characteristics 774
Wastewater flowrates 774
Wastewater constituent concentrations 778
13-4 Treatment Technologies 785
Source separating systems 786
In-building pretreatment 788
Primary treatment 788
Secondary treatment 792
Nutrient removal 797
Disinfection processes 802
Performance 804
Reliability 804
Maintenance needs 804
13-5 Technologies for Housing Developments and Small Community Systems 806
Collection systems 807
Treatment technologies 815
13-6 Decentralized Water Reuse Opportunities 816
Landscape irrigation systems 816
Irrigation with greywater 818
Groundwater recharge 818
Self-contained recycle systems 821
Habitat development 821
13-7 Management and Monitoring of Decentralized Systems 821
Types of management structures 821
Monitoring and control equipment 824
Problems and Discussion Topics 826
References 827
14 Distribution and Storage of Reclaimed Water 829
Working Terminology 830
14-1 Issues in the Planning Process 831
Type,size,and location of facilities 831
Individual reclaimed water system versus dual distribution system 832
Public concerns and involvement 833
14-2 Planning and Conceptual Design of Distribution and Storage Facilities 833
Location of reclaimed water supply,major users,and demands 834
Quantities and pressure requirements for major demands 834
Distribution system network 836
Facility design criteria 841
Distribution system analysis 845
Optimization of distribution system 847
14-3 Pipeline Design 856
Location of reclaimed water pipelines 856
Design criteria for reclaimed water pipelines 858
Pipeline materials 858
Joints and connections 860
Corrosion protection 861
Pipe identification 862
Distribution system valves 863
Distribution system appurtenances 863
14-4 Pumping Systems 866
Pumping station location and site layout 866
Pump types 867
Pumping station performance 870
Constant versus variable speed operation 870
Valves 871
Equipment and piping layout 872
Emergency power 872
Effect of pump operating schedule on system design 875
14-5 Design of Reclaimed Water Storage Facilities 877
Location of reclaimed water reservoirs 878
Facility and site layout for reservoirs,piping,and appurtenances 879
Materials of construction 881
Protective coatings—interior and exterior 881
14-6 Operation and Maintenance of Distribution Facilities 882
Pipelines 883
Pumping stations 884
14-7 Water Quality Management Issues in Reclaimed Water Distribution and Storage 884
Water quality issues 885
Impact of water quality issues 887
The effect of storage on water quality changes 887
Strategies for managing water quality in open and enclosed reservoirs 889
Problems and Discussion Topics 892
References 898
15 Dual Plumbing Systems 901
Working Terminology 902
15-1 Overview of Dual Plumbing Systems 902
Rationale for dual plumbing systems 902
Applications for dual plumbing systems 903
15-2 Planning Considerations for Dual Plumbing Systems 907
Applications for dual plumbing systems 907
Regulations and codes governing dual plumbing systems 908
Applicable health and safety regulations 908
15-3 Design Considerations for Dual Distribution Systems 908
Plumbing codes 908
Safeguards 908
15-4 Inspection and Operating Considerations 913
15-5 Case Study:Irvine Ranch Water District,Orange County,California 915
Setting 915
Water management issues 915
Implementation 916
Operational issues 918
Lessons learned 919
15-6 Case Study:Rouse Hill Recycled Water Area Project(Australia) 919
Setting 919
Water management issues 920
Implementation 920
Lessons learned 920
15-7 Case Study:Serrano,California 921
Setting 922
Water management issues 922
Implementation 923
Lessons learned 925
Problems and Discussion Topics 925
References 926
Part 4 Water Reuse Applications 927
16 Water Reuse Applications:An Overview 929
Working Terminology 930
16-1 Water Reuse Applications 930
Agricultural irrigation 931
Landscape irrigation 931
Industrial uses 931
Urban nonirrigation uses 933
Environmental and recreational uses 933
Groundwater recharge 933
Indirect potable reuse through surface water augmentation 933
Direct potable reuse 934
Water reuse applications in other parts of the world 934
16-2 Issues in Water Reuse 934
Resource sustainability 934
Water resource opportunities 935
Reliability of water supply 935
Economic considerations 935
Public policy 935
Regulations 936
Issues and constraints for specific applications 937
16-3 Important Factors in the Selection of Water Reuse Applications 937
Water quality considerations 937
Types of technology 939
Matching supply and demand 939
Infrastructure requirements 939
Economic feasibility(affordability) 940
Environmental considerations 941
16-4 Future Trends in Water Reuse Applications 941
Changes in regulations 942
Water supply augmentation 942
Decentralized and satellite systems 942
New treatment technologies 942
Issues associated with potable reuse 944
Problems and Discussion Topics 944
References 945
17 Agricultural Uses of Reclaimed Water 947
Working Terminology 948
17-1 Agricultural Irrigation with Reclaimed Water:An Overview 949
Reclaimed water irrigation for agriculture in the United States 950
Reclaimed water irrigation for agriculture in the world 952
Regulations and guidelines related to agricultural irrgation with reclaimed water 953
17-2 Agronomics and Water Quality Considerations 954
Soil characteristics 955
Suspended solids 958
Salinity,sodicity,and specific ion toxicity 959
Trace elements and nutrients 966
Crop selection 971
17-3 Elements for the Design of Reclaimed Water Irrigation Systems 971
Water reclamation and reclaimed water quantity and quality 977
Selection of the type of irrigation system 977
Leaching requirements 986
Estimation of water application rate 989
Field area requirements 997
Drainage systems 998
Drainage water management and disposal 1003
Storage system 1003
Irrigation scheduling 1008
17-4 Operation and Maintenance of Reclaimed Water Irrigation Systems 1008
Demand-supply management 1009
Nutrient management 1009
Public health protection 1011
Effects of reclaimed water irrigation on soils and crops 1011
Monitoring requirements 1014
17-5 Case Study:Monterey Wastewater Reclamation Study for Agriculture—Monterey,California 1015
Setting 1016
Water management issues 1016
Implementation 1016
Study results 1017
Subsequent projects 1021
Recycled water food safety study 1021
Lessons learned 1021
17-6 Case Study:Water Conserv II,Florida 1022
Setting 1023
Water management issues 1023
Implementation 1023
Importance of Water Conserv Ⅱ 1027
Lessons learned 1027
17-7 Case Study:The Virginia Pipeline Scheme,South Australia—Seasonal ASR of Reclaimed Water for irrigation 1028
Setting 1028
Water management issues 1029
Regulatory requirements 1029
Technology issues 1029
Implementation 1030
Performance and operations 1032
Lessons learned 1035
Problems and Discussion Topics 1035
References 1038
18 Landscape Irrigation with Reclaimed Water 1043
Working Terminology 1044
18-1 Landscape Irrigation:An Overview 1045
Definition of landscape irrigation 1045
Reclaimed water use for landscape irrigation in the United States 1046
18-2 Design and Operational Considerations for Reclaimed Water Landscape Irrigation Systems 1047
Water quality requirements 1047
Landscape plant selection 1050
Irrigation systems 1054
Estimation of water needs 1054
Application rate and irrigation schedule 1065
Management of demand-supply balance 1065
Operation and maintenance issues 1066
18-3 Golf Course Irrigation with Reclaimed Water 1070
Water quality and agronomic considerations 1070
Reclaimed water supply and storage 1072
Distribution system design considerations 1075
Leaching,drainage,and runoff 1076
Other considerations 1076
18-4 Irrigation of Public Areas with Reclaimed Water 1076
Irrigation of public areas 1078
Reclaimed water treatment and water quality 1079
Conveyance and distribution system 1079
Aesthetics and public acceptance 1079
Operation and maintenance issues 1080
18-5 Residential Landscape Irrigation with Reclaimed Water 1080
Residential landscape irrigation systems 1080
Reclaimed water treatment and water quality 1081
Conveyance and distribution system 1081
Operation and maintenance issues 1082
18-6 Landscape Irrigation with Decentralized Treatment and Subsurface Irrigation Systems 1082
Subsurface drip irrigation for individual on-site and cluster systems 1082
Irrigation for residential areas 1086
18-7 Case Study:Landscape Irrigation in St.Petersburg,Florida 1086
Setting 1087
Water management issues 1087
Implementation 1087
Project Greenleaf and resource management 1089
Landscape irrigation in the city of St.Petersburg 1091
Lessons learned 1093
18-8 Case Study:Residential Irrigation in El Dorado Hills,California 1093
Water management issues 1094
Implementation 1094
Education program 1096
Lessons learned 1096
Problems and Discussion Topics 1097
References 1099
19 Industrial Uses of Reclaimed Water 1103
Working Terminology 1104
19-1 Industrial Uses of Reclaimed Water:An Overview 1105
Status of water use for industrial applications in the United States 1105
Water management in industries 1107
Factors affecting the use of reclaimed water for industrial applications 1108
19-2 Water Quality Issues for Industrial Uses of Reclaimed Water 1109
General water quality considerations 1110
Corrosion issues 1110
Indexes for assessing effects of reclaimed water quality on reuse systems 1115
Corrosion management options 1126
Scaling issues 1127
Accumulation of dissolved constituents 1129
19-3 Cooling Water Systems 1132
System description 1132
Water quality considerations 1132
Design and operational considerations 1135
Management issues 1138
19-4 Other Industrial Water Reuse Applications 1141
Boilers 1141
Pulp and paper industry 1147
Textile industry 1150
Other industrial applications 1154
19-5 Case Study:Cooling Tower at a Thermal Power Generation Plant,Denver,Colorado 1155
Setting 1155
Water management issues 1156
Implementation 1158
Lessons learned 1158
19-6 Case Study:Industrial Uses of Reclaimed Water in West Basin Municipal Water District,California 1158
Setting 1158
Water management issues 1158
Implementation 1159
Lessons learned 1161
Problems and Discussion Topics 1161
References 1165
20 Urban Nonirrigation Water Reuse Applications 1169
Working Terminology 1170
20-1 Urban Water Use and Water Reuse Applications:An Overview 1171
Domestic potable water use in the United States 1171
Commercial water use in the United States 1172
Urban nonirrigation water reuse in the United States 1172
Urban nonirrigation water reuse in other countries 1172
20-2 Factors Affecting the Use of Reclaimed Water for Urban Nonirrigation Reuse Applications 1175
Infrastructure issues 1175
Water quality and supply issues 1176
Acceptance issues 1179
20-3 Air Conditioning 1179
Description of air conditioning systems 1179
Utilizing reclaimed water for air conditioning systems 1181
Water quality considerations 1181
Management issues 1183
20-4 Fire Protection 1183
Types of applications 1186
Water quality considerations 1187
Implementation issues 1187
Management issues 1188
20-5 Toilet and Urinal Flushing 1188
Types of applications 1188
Water quality considerations 1188
Implementation issues 1192
Satellite and decentralized systems 1193
Management issues 1193
20-6 Commercial Applications 1195
Car and other vehicle washing 1195
Laundries 1196
20-7 Public Water Features 1197
Fountains and waterfalls 1197
Reflecting pools 1197
Ponds and lakes in public parks 1198
20-8 Road Care and Maintenance 1198
Dust control and street cleaning 1199
Snow melting 1199
Problems and Discussion Topics 1200
References 1201
21 Environmental and Recreational Uses of Reclaimed Water 1203
Working Terminology 1204
21-1 Overview of Environmental and Recreational Uses of Reclaimed Water 1205
Types of environmental and recreational uses 1206
Important factors influencing environmental and recreational uses of reclaimed water 1207
21-2 Wetlands 1210
Types of wetlands 1210
Development of wetlands with reclaimed water 1213
Water quality considerations 1216
Operations and maintenance 1216
21-3 Stream Flow Augmentation 1222
Aquatic and riparian habitat enhancement with reclaimed water 1222
Recreational uses of streams augmented with reclaimed water 1224
Reclaimed water quality requirements 1224
Stream flow requirements 1226
Operations and maintenance 1226
21-4 Ponds and Lakes 1228
Water quality requirements 1228
Operations and maintenance 1230
Other considerations 1230
21-5 Other Uses 1231
Snowmaking 1231
Animal viewing parks 1231
21-6 Case Study:Arcata,California 1231
Setting 1232
Water management issues 1232
Implementation 1232
Lessons learned 1233
21-7 Case Study:San Luis Obispo,California 1234
Setting 1234
Water management issues 1235
Implementation 1235
Lessons learned 1238
21-8 Case Study:Santee Lakes,San Diego,California 1238
Setting 1239
Water management issues 1239
Implementation 1239
Lessons learned 1241
Problems and Discussion Topics 1242
References 1242
22 Groundwater Recharge with Reclaimed Water 1245
Working Terminology 1246
22-1 Planned Groundwater Recharge with Reclaimed Water 1248
Advantages of subsurface storage 1248
Types of groundwater recharge 1249
Components of a groundwater recharge system 1250
Technologies for groundwater recharge 1251
Selection of recharge system 1253
Recovery of recharge water 1254
22-2 Water Quality Requirements 1255
Water quality challenges for groundwater recharge 1255
Degree of pretreatment required 1255
22-3 Recharge Using Surface Spreading Basins 1256
Description 1256
Pretreatment needs 1257
Hydraulic analysis 1259
Operation and maintenance issues 1268
Performance of recharge basins 1271
Pathogens 1279
Examples of full-scale surface spreading facilities 1280
22-4 Recharge Using Vadose Zone Injection Wells 1282
Description 1282
Pretreatment needs 1283
Hydraulic analysis 1284
Operation and maintenance issues 1285
Performance of vadose zone injection wells 1286
Examples of operational full-scale vadose zone injection facilities 1286
22-5 Recharge Using Direct Injection Wells 1287
Description 1287
Pretreatment needs 1288
Hydraulic analysis 1288
Operation and maintenance issues 1290
Performance of direct injection wells 1291
Examples of full-scale direct aquifer injection facilities 1292
22-6 Other Methods Used for Groundwater Recharge 1293
Aquifer storage and recovery(ASR) 1293
Riverbank and dune filtration 1294
Enhanced river recharge 1295
Groundwater recharge using subsurface facilities 1296
22-7 Case Study:Orange County Water District Groundwater Replenishment System 1296
Setting 1297
The GWR system 1297
Implementation 1297
Lessons learned 1298
Problems and Discussion Topics 1299
References 1300
23 Indirect Potable Reuse through Surface Water Augmentation 1303
Working Terminology 1304
23-1 Overview of Indirect Potable Reuse 1305
De facto indirect potable reuse 1305
Strategies for indirect potable reuse through surface-water augmentation 1307
Public acceptance 1308
23-2 Health and Risk Considerations 1308
Pathogen and trace constituents 1308
System reliability 1309
Use of multiple barriers 1309
23-3 Planning for Indirect Potable Reuse 1309
Characteristics of the watershed 1310
Quantity of reclaimed water to be blended 1311
Water and wastewater treatment requirements 1312
Institutional considerations 1312
Cost considerations 1313
23-4 Technical Considerations for Surface-Water Augmentation in Lakes and Reservoirs 1314
Characteristics of water supply reservoirs 1314
Modeling of lakes and reservoirs 1319
Strategies for augmenting water supply reservoirs 1320
23-5 Case Study:Implementing Indirect Potable Reuse at the Upper Occoquan Sewage Authority 1323
Setting 1323
Water management issues 1323
Description of treatment components 1323
Future treatment process directions 1326
Water quality of the Occoquan Reservoir 1327
Water treatment 1328
Lessons learned 1329
23-6 Case Study:City of San Diego Water Repurification Proiect and Water Reuse Study 2005 1329
Setting 1330
Water management issues 1330
Wastewater treatment mandates 1330
Water Repurification Project 1331
2000 Updated Water Reclamation Master Plan 1332
City of San Diego Water Reuse Study 2005 1332
Lessons learned 1334
23-7 Case Study:Singapore's NEWater for Indirect Potable Reuse 1334
Setting 1335
Water management issues 1335
NEWater Factory and NEWater 1335
Implementation 1335
NEWater demonstration plant performance 1336
Project milestones 1336
Lessons learned 1337
23-8 Observations on Indirect Potable Reuse 1340
Problems and Discussion Topics 1341
References 1342
24 Direct Potable Reuse of Reclaimed Water 1345
Working Terminology 1346
24-1 Issues in Direct Potable Reuse 1346
Public perception 1347
Health risk concerns 1347
Technological capabilities 1347
Cost considerations 1348
24-2 Case Study:Emergency Potable Reuse in Chanute,Kansas 1348
Setting 1348
Water management issues 1349
Implementation 1349
Efficiency of sewage treatment and the overall treatment process 1349
Lessons learned 1351
Importance of the Chanute experience 1352
24-3 Case Study:Direct Potable Reuse in Windhoek,Namibia 1352
Setting 1353
Water management issues 1353
Implementation 1354
Lessons learned 1359
24-4 Case Study:Direct Potable Reuse Demonstration Project in Denver,Colorado 1361
Setting 1362
Water management issues 1362
Treatment technologies 1362
Water quality testing and studies 1364
Animal health effects testing 1371
Cost estimates on the potable reuse advanced treatment plant 1372
Public information program 1373
Lessons learned 1374
24-5 Observations on Direct Potable Reuse 1375
Problems and Discussion Topics 1376
References 1376
Part 5 Implementing Water Reuse 1379
25 Planning for Water Reclamation and Reuse 1381
Working Terminology 1382
25-1 Integrated Water Resources Planning 1384
Integrated water resources planning process 1385
Clarifying the problem 1386
Formulating objectives 1386
Gathering background information 1386
Identifying project alternatives 1388
Evaluating and ranking alternatives 1389
Developing implementation plans 1389
25-2 Engineering Issues in Water Reclamation and Reuse Planning 1392
25-3 Environmental Assessment and Public Participation 1392
Environmental assessment 1393
Public participation and outreach 1393
25-4 Legal and Institutional Aspects of Water Reuse 1393
Water rights law 1393
Water rights and water reuse 1395
Policies and regulations 1397
Institutional coordination 1397
25-5 Case Study:Institutional Arrangements at the Walnut Valley Water District,California 1397
Water management issues 1397
Lessons learned 1398
25-6 Reclaimed Water Market Assessment 1399
Steps in data collection and analysis 1399
Comparison of water sources 1399
Comparison with costs and revenues 1401
Market assurances 1402
25-7 Factors Affecting Monetary Evaluation of Water Reclamation and Reuse 1406
Common weaknesses in water reclamation and reuse planning 1407
Perspectives in project analysis 1408
Planning and design time horizons 1408
Time value of money 1409
Inflation and cost indices 1409
25-8 Economic Analysis for Water Reuse 1411
Comparison of alternatives by present worth analysis 1412
Measurement of costs and inflation 1412
Measurement of benefits 1412
Basic assumptions of economic analyses 1414
Replacement costs and salvage values 1415
Computation of economic cost 1417
Project optimization 1420
Influence of subsidies 1421
25-9 Financial Analysis 1422
Construction financial plans and revenue programs 1422
Cost allocation 1423
Influence on freshwater rates 1423
Other financial analysis considerations 1423
Sources of revenue and pricing of reclaimed water 1424
Financial feasibility analysis 1425
Sensitivity analysis and conservative assumptions 1429
Problems and Discussion Topics 1430
References 1432
26 Public Participation and Implementation Issues 1435
Working Terminology 1436
26-1 How Is Water Reuse Perceived? 1436
Public attitude about water reuse 1436
Public beliefs about water reuse options 1440
26-2 Public Perspectives on Water Reuse 1440
Water quality and public health 1441
Economics 1441
Water supply and growth 1441
Environmental justice/equity issues 1441
The"Yuck"factor 1442
Other issues 1442
26-3 Public Participation and Outreach 1443
Why involve the public? 1443
Legal mandates for public involvement 1443
Defining the"public" 1444
Approaches to public involvement 1444
Techniques for public participation and outreach 1446
Some pitfalls in types of public involvement 1448
26-4 Case Study:Difficulties Encountered in Redwood City's Landscape Irrigation Project 1450
Setting 1450
Water management issues 1450
Water reclamation project planned 1450
Lessons learned 1452
26-5 Case Study:Water Reclamation and Reuse in the City of St.Petersburg,Florida 1453
Setting 1453
Water and wastewater management issues 1453
Development of reclaimed water system 1455
Current status of water reclamation and reuse 1456
Lessons learned 1456
Access to city's proactive water reclamation and reuse information 1458
26-6 Observations on Water Reclamation and Reuse 1459
Problems and Discussion Topics 1459
References 1460
Appendixes 1463
A Conversion Factors 1463
B Physical Properties of Selected Gases and the Composition of Air 1471
C Physical Properties of Water 1475
D Statistical Analysis of Data 1479
E Review of Water Reclamation Activities in the United States and in Selected Countries 1485
F Evolution of Nonpotable Reuse Criteria and Groundwater Recharge Regulations in California 1509
G Values of the Hantush Function F(α,β) and the Well Function W(u) 1523
H Interest Factors and Their Use 1525
Indexes 1529
Name Index 1529
Subject Index 1541