水回用：问题、技术与实践 英文 下PDF电子书下载

Part 1　Water Reuse:An Introduction 1

1 Water Issues:Current Status and the Role of Water Reclamation and Reuse 3

Working Terminology 4

1-1 Definition of Terms 6

1-2 Principles of Sustainable Water Resources Management 6

The principle of sustainability 7

Working definitions of sustainability 7

Challenges for sustainability 7

Criteria for sustainable water resources management 7

Environmental ethics 13

1-3 Current and Potential Future Global Water Shortages 15

Impact of current and projected world population 15

Potential global water shortages 19

Water scarcity 19

Potential regional water shortages in the continental United States 20

1-4 The Important Role of Water Reclamation and Reuse 23

Types of water reuse 24

Integrated water resources planning 24

Personnel needs/sustainable engineering 27

Treatment and technology needs 27

Infrastructure and planning issues 28

1-5 Water Reclamation and Reuse and Its Future 30

Implementation hurdles 31

Public support 31

Acceptance varies depending on opportunity and necessity 31

Public water supply from polluted water sources 31

Advances in water reclamation technologies 31

Challenges for water reclamation and reuse 32

Problems and Discussion Topics 32

References 33

2 Water Reuse:Past and Current Practices 37

Working Terminology 38

2-1 Evolution of Water Reclamation and Reuse 39

Historical development prior to 1960 39

Era of water reclamation and reuse in the United States-post-1960 41

2-2 Impact of State and Federal Statutes on Water Reclamation and Reuse 45

The Clean Water Act 45

The Safe Drinking Water Act 46

2-3 Water Reuse—Current Status in the United States 46

Withdrawal of water from surface and groundwater sources 46

Availability and reuse of treated wastewater 46

Milestone water reuse projects and research studies 47

2-4 Water Reuse in California:A Case Study 47

Experience with water reuse 47

Current water reuse status 48

Water reuse policies and recycling regulations 51

Potential future uses of reclaimed water 52

2-5 Water Reuse in Florida:A Case Study 53

Experience with water reuse 54

Current water reuse status 54

Water reuse policies and recycling regulations 56

Potential future uses of reclaimed water 56

2-6 Water Reuse in Other Parts of the World 58

Significant developments worldwide 58

The World Health Organization's water reuse guidelines 59

Water reuse in developing countries 59

2-7 Summary and Lessons Learned 63

Problems and Discussion Topics 65

References 66

Part 2 Health and Environmental Concerns in Water Reuse 71

3 Characteristics of Municipal Wastewater and Related Health and Environmental Issues 73

Working Terminology 74

3-1 Wastewater in Public Water Supplies—de facto Potable Reuse 77

Presence of treated wastewater in public water supplies 78

Impact of the presence of treated wastewater on public water supplies 78

3-2 Introduction to Waterborne Diseases and Health Issues 78

Important historical events 79

Waterborne disease 80

Etiology of waterborne disease 81

3-3 Waterborne Pathogenic Microorganisms 83

Terminology conventions for organisms 83

Log removal 83

Bacteria 83

Protozoa 87

Helminths 89

Viruses 89

3-4 Indicator Organisms 92

Characteristics of an ideal indicator organism 92

The coliform group bacteria 93

Bacteriophages 93

Other indicator organisms 94

3-5 Occurrence of Microbial Pathogens in Untreated and Treated Wastewater and in the Environment 94

Pathogens in untreated wastewater 94

Pathogens in treated wastewater 97

Pathogens in the environment 102

Survival of pathogenic organisms 102

3-6 Chemical Constituents in Untreated and Treated Wastewater 103

Chemical constituents in untreated wastewater 103

Constituents added through domestic commercial and industrial usage 104

Chemical constituents in treated wastewater 108

Formation of disinfection byproducts(DBPs) 113

Comparison of treated wastewater to natural water 114

Use of surrogate parameters 115

3-7 Emerging Contaminants in Water and Wastewater 117

Endocrine disruptors and pharmaceutically active chemicals 117

Some specific constituents with emerging concern 118

New and reemerging microorganisms 120

3-8 Environmental Issues 120

Effects on soils and plants 121

Effects on surface water and groundwater 121

Effects on ecosystems 121

Effects on development and land use 122

Problems and Discussion Topics 122

References 124

4 Water Reuse Regulations and Guidelines 131

Working Terminology 132

4-1 Understanding Regulatory Terminology 134

Standard and criterion 134

Standard versus criterion 134

Regulation 135

Difference between regulations and guidelines 135

Water reclamation and reuse 135

4-2 Development of Standards,Regulations,and Guidelines for Water Reuse 135

Basis for water quality standards 136

Development of water reuse regulations and guidelines 136

The regulatory process 139

4-3 General Regulatory Considerations Related to Water Reclamation and Reuse 139

Constituents and physical properties of concern in wastewater 139

Wastewater treatment and water quality considerations 142

Reclaimed water quality monitoring 145

Storage requirements 146

Reclaimed water application rates 147

Aerosols and windborne sprays 147

4-4 Regulatory Considerations for Specific Water Reuse Applications 149

Agricultural irrigation 149

Landscape irrigation 150

Dual distribution systems and in-building uses 151

Impoundments 152

Industrial uses 153

Other nonpotable uses 153

Groundwater recharge 154

4-5 Regulatory Considerations for Indirect Potable Reuse 155

Use of the most protected water source 155

Influence of the two water acts 155

Concerns for trace chemical constituents and pathogens 156

Assessment of health risks 157

4-6 State Water Reuse Regulations 157

Status of water reuse regulations and guidelines 158

Regulations and guidelines for specific reuse applications 158

Regulatory requirements for nonpotable uses of reclaimed water 165

State regulations for indirect potable reuse 167

4-7 U.S.EPA Guidelines for Water Reuse 169

Disinfection requirements 169

Microbial limits 178

Control measures 178

Recommendations for indirect potable reuse 178

4-8 World Health Organization Guidelines for Water Reuse 179

1989 WHO guidelines for agriculture and aquaculture 180

The Stockholm framework 180

Disability adjusted life years 180

Concept of tolerable(acceptable)risk 181

Tolerable microbial risk in water 181

2006 WHO guidelines for the safe use of wastewater in agriculture 182

4-9 Future Directions in Regulations and Guidelines 184

Continuing development of state standards,regulations,and guidelines 184

Technical advances in treatment processes 184

Information needs 184

Problems and Discussion Topics 185

References 187

5 Health Risk Analysis in Water Reuse Applications 191

Working Terminology 192

5-1 Risk Analysis:An Overview 193

Historical development of risk assessment 194

Objectives and applications of human health risk assessment 194

Elements of risk analysis 194

Risk analysis:definitions and concepts 196

5-2 Health Risk Assessment 197

Hazard identification 198

Dose-response assessment 198

Dose-response models 200

Exposure assessment 204

Risk characterization 204

Comparison of human health and ecological risk assessment 205

5-3 Risk Management 205

5-4 Risk Communication 206

5-5 Tools and Methods Used in Risk Assessment 207

Concepts from public health 207

Concepts from epidemiology 208

Concepts from toxicology 209

National toxicology program cancer bioassay 213

Ecotoxicology:environmental effects 214

5-6 Chemical Risk Assessment 215

Safety and risk determination in regulation of chemical agents 215

Risks from potential nonthreshold toxicants 220

Risk considerations 224

Chemical risk assessment summary 225

5-7 Microbial Risk Assessment 225

Infectious disease paradigm for microbial risk assessment 225

Microbial risk assessment methods 227

Static microbial risk assessment models 227

Dynamic microbial risk assessment models 229

Selecting a microbial risk model 232

5-8 Application of Microbial Risk Assessment in Water Reuse Applications 234

Microbial risk assessment employing a static model 234

Microbial risk assessment employing dynamic models 239

Risk assessment for water reuse from enteric viruses 244

5-9 Limitations in Applying Risk Assessment to Water Reuse Applications 249

Relative nature of risk assessment 249

Inadequate consideration of secondary infections 249

Limited dose-response data 250

Problems and Discussion Topics 250

References 251

Part 3 Technologies and Systems for Water Reclamation and Reuse 255

6 Water Reuse Technologies and Treatment Systems:An Overview 257

Working Terminology 258

6-1 Constituents in Untreated Municipal Wastewater 260

6-2 Technology Issues in Water Reclamation and Reuse 260

Water reuse applications 262

Water quality requirements 262

Multiple barrier concept 263

Need for multiple treatment technologies 265

6-3 Treatment Technologies for Water Reclamation Applications 265

Removal of dissolved organic matter,suspended solids,and nutrients by secondary treatment 268

Removal of residual particulate matter in secondary effluent 269

Removal of residual dissolved constituents 271

Removal of trace constituents 271

Disinfection processes 271

6-4 Important Factors in the Selection of Technologies for Water Reuse 272

Multiple water reuse applications 273

Need to remove trace constituents 273

Need to conduct pilot-scale testing 276

Process reliability 276

Standby and redundancy considerations 279

Infrastructure needs for water reuse applications 280

6-5 Impact of Treatment Plant Location on Water Reuse 281

Centralized treatment plants 282

Satellite treatment facilities 282

Decentralized treatment facilities 283

6-6 The Future of Water Reclamation Technologies and Treatment Systems 286

Implication of trace constituents on future water reuse 287

New regulations 287

Retrofitting existing treatment plants 288

New treatment plants 289

Satellite treatment systems 289

Decentralized treatment facilities and systems 289

New infrastructure concepts and designs 290

Research needs 291

Problems and Discussion Topics 292

References 293

7 Removal of Constituents by Secondary Treatment 295

Working Terminology 296

7-1 Constituents in Untreated Wastewater 299

Constituents of concern 299

Typical constituent concentration values 299

Variability of mass loadings 301

7-2 Technologies for Water Reuse Applications 304

7-3 Nonmembrane Processes for Secondary Treatment 307

Suitability for reclaimed water applications 307

Process descriptions 308

Process performance expectations 310

Importance of secondary sedimentation tank design 318

7-4 Nonmembrane Processes for the Control and Removal of Nutrients in Secondary Treatment 320

Nitrogen control 320

Nitrogen removal 321

Phosphorus removal 324

Process performance expectations 328

7-5 Membrane Bioreactor Processes for Secondary Treatment 328

Description of membrane bioreactors 330

Suitability of MBRs for reclaimed water applications 331

Types of membrane bioreactor systems 332

Principal proprietary submerged membrane systems 333

Other membrane systems 338

Process performance expectations 340

7-6 Analysis and Design of Membrane Bioreactor Processes 340

Process analysis 340

Design considerations 353

Nutrient removal 358

Biosolids processing 361

7-7 Issues in the Selection of Secondary Treatment Processes 361

Expansion of an existing plant vs. construction of a new plant 362

Final use of effluent 362

Comparative performance of treatment processes 362

Pilot-scale studies 362

Type of disinfection process 362

Future water quality requirements 363

Energy considerations 363

Site constraints 364

Economic and other considerations 368

Problems and Discussion Topics 368

References 371

8 Removal of Residual Particulate Matter 373

Working Terminology 374

8-1 Characteristics of Residual Suspended Particulate Matter from Secondary Treatment Processes 375

Residual constituents and properties of concern 375

Removal of residual particles from secondary treatment processes 385

8-2 Technologies for the Removal of Residual Suspended Particulate Matter 388

Technologies for reclaimed water applications 388

Process flow diagrams 390

Process performance expectations 390

Suitability for reclaimed water applications 392

8-3 Depth Filtration 392

Available filtration technologies 392

Performance of depth filters 398

Design considerations 407

Pilot-scale studies 415

Operational issues 417

8-4 Surface Filtration 417

Available filtration technologies 419

Performance of surface filters 422

Design considerations 423

Pilot-scale studies 425

8-5 Membrane Filtration 425

Membrane terminology,types,classification,and flow patterns 426

Microfiltration and ultrafiltration 430

Process analysis for MF and UF membranes 435

Operating characteristics and strategies for MF and UF membranes 436

Membrane performance 436

Design considerations 441

Pilot-scale studies 441

Operational issues 443

8-6 Dissolved Air Flotation 445

Process description 445

Performance of DAF process 448

Design considerations 448

Operating considerations 453

Pilot-scale studies 453

8-7 Issues in the Selection of Technologies for the Removal of Residual Particulate Matter 454

Final use of effluent 454

Comparative performance of technologies 455

Results of pilot-scale studies 455

Type of disinfection process 455

Future water quality requirements 455

Energy considerations 455

Site constraints 455

Economic considerations 455

Problems and Discussion Topics 456

References 459

9 Removal of Dissolved Constituents with Membranes 461

Working Terminology 462

9-1 Introduction to Technologies Used for the Removal of Dissolved Constituents 463

Membrane separation 463

Definition of osmotic pressure 463

Nanofiltration and reverse osmosis 465

Electrodialysis 466

Typical process applications and flow diagrams 467

9-2 Nanofiltration 467

Types of membranes used in nanofiltration 468

Application of nanofiltration 471

Performance expectations 471

9-3 Reverse Osmosis 473

Types of membranes used in reverse osmosis 473

Application of reverse osmosis 474

Performance expectations 474

9-4 Design and Operational Considerations for Nanofiltration and Reverse Osmosis Systems 475

Feedwater considerations 475

Pretreatment 477

Treatability testing 479

Membrane flux and area requirements 482

Membrane fouling 487

Control of membrane fouling 490

Process operating parameters 490

Posttreatment 492

9-5 Pilot-Plant Studies for Nanofiltration and Reverse Osmosis 499

9-6 Electrodialysis 501

Description of the electrodialysis process 501

Electrodialysis reversal 502

Power consumption 503

Design and operating considerations 506

Membrane and electrode life 507

Advantages and disadvantages of electrodialysis versus reverse osmosis 508

9-7 Management of Membrane Waste Streams 509

Membrane concentrate issues 509

Thickening and drying of waste streams 511

Ultimate disposal methods for membrane waste streams 515

Problems and Discussion Topics 519

References 522

10 Removal of Residual Trace Constituents 525

Working Terminology 526

10-1 Introduction to Technologies Used for the Removal of Trace Constituents 528

Separation processes based on mass transfer 528

Chemical and biological transformation processes 531

10-2 Adsorption 532

Applications for adsorption 532

Types of adsorbents 533

Basic considerations for adsorption processes 536

Adsorption process limitations 551

10-3 Ion Exchange 551

Applications for ion exchange 552

Ion exchange materials 554

Basic considerations for ion exchange processes 555

Ion exchange process limitations 559

10-4 Distillation 560

Applications for distillation 560

Distillation processes 560

Basic considerations for distillation processes 562

Distillation process limitations 563

10-5 Chemical Oxidation 563

Applications for conventional chemical oxidation 563

Oxidants used in chemical oxidation processes 563

Basic considerations for chemical oxidation processes 566

Chemical oxidation process limitations 567

10-6 Advanced Oxidation 567

Applications for advanced oxidation 568

Processes for advanced oxidation 569

Basic considerations for advanced oxidation processes 574

Advanced oxidation process limitations 577

10-7 Photolysis 578

Applications for photolysis 578

Photolysis processes 579

Basic considerations for photolysis processes 579

Photolysis process limitations 586

10-8 Advanced Biological Transformations 586

Basic considerations for advanced biological treatment processes 587

Advanced biological treatment processes 588

Limitations of advanced biological transformation processes 590

Problems and Discussion Topics 591

References 594

11 Disinfection Processes for Water Reuse Applications 599

Working Terminology 600

11-1 Disinfection Technologies Used for Water Reclamation 602

Characteristics for an ideal disinfectant 602

Disinfection agents and methods in water reclamation 602

Mechanisms used to explain action of disinfectants 604

Comparison of reclaimed water disinfectants 605

11-2 Practical Considerations and Issues for Disinfection 606

Physical facilities used for disinfection 606

Factors affecting performance 609

Development of the CRt Concept for predicting disinfection performance 616

Application of the CRt concept for reclaimed water disinfection 617

Performance comparison of disinfection technologies 618

Advantages and disadvantages of alternative disinfection technologies 618

11-3 Disinfection with Chlorine 622

Characteristics of chlorine compounds 622

Chemistry of chlorine compounds 624

Breakpoint reaction with chlorine 626

Measurement and reporting of disinfection process variables 631

Germicidal efficiency of chlorine and various chlorine compounds in clean water 631

Form of residual chlorine and contact time 631

Factors that affect disinfection of reclaimed water with chlorine 633

Chemical characteristics of the reclaimed water 635

Modeling the chlorine disinfection process 639

Required chlorine dosages for disinfection 641

Assessing the hydraulic performance of chlorine contact basins 644

Formation and control of disinfection byproducts 650

Environmental impacts 654

11-4 Disinfection with Chlorine Dioxide 654

Characteristics of chlorine dioxide 655

Chlorine dioxide chemistry 655

Effectiveness of chlorine dioxide as a disinfectant 655

Byproduct formation and control 656

Environmental impacts 657

11-5 Dechlorination 657

Dechlorination of reclaimed water treated with chlorine and chlorine compounds 657

Dechlorination of chlorine dioxide with sulfur dioxide 660

11-6 Disinfection with Ozone 660

Ozone properties 660

Ozone chemistry 661

Ozone disinfection systems components 662

Effectiveness of ozone as a disinfectant 666

Modeling the ozone disinfection process 666

Required ozone dosages for disinfection 669

Byproduct formation and control 670

Environmental impacts of using ozone 671

Other benefits of using ozone 671

11-7 Other Chemical Disinfection Methods 671

Peracetic acid 671

Combined chemical disinfection processes 672

11-8 Disinfection with Ultraviolet Radiation 674

Source of UV radiation 674

Types of UV lamps 674

UV disinfection system configurations 678

Mechanism of inactivation by UV irradiation 682

Factors affecting germicidal effectiveness of UV irradiation 684

Modeling the UV disinfection process 690

Estimating UV dose 691

Ultraviolet disinfection guidelines 700

Analysis of a UV disinfection system 708

Operational issues with UV disinfection systems 708

Environmental impacts of UV irradiation 711

Problems and Discussion Topics 712

References 718

12 Satellite Treatment Systems for Water Reuse Applications 725

Working Terminology 726

12-1 Introduction to Satellite Systems 727

Types of satellite treatment systems 728

Important factors in selecting the use of satellite systems 730

12-2 Planning Considerations for Satellite Systems 730

Identification of near-term and future reclaimed water needs 730

Integration with existing facilities 731

Siting considerations 731

Public perception,legal aspects,and institutional issues 734

Economic considerations 735

Environmental considerations 735

Governing regulations 735

12-3 Satellite Systems for Nonagricultural Water Reuse Applications 735

Reuse in buildings 736

Landscape irrigation 736

Lakes and recreational enhancement 736

Groundwater recharge 736

Industrial applications 737

12-4 Collection System Requirements 738

Interception type satellite system 738

Extraction type satellite system 738

Upstream type satellite system 739

12-5 Wastewater Characteristics 739

Interception type satellite system 740

Extraction type satellite system 740

Upstream type satellite system 741

12-6 Infrastructure Facilities for Satellite Treatment Systems 741

Diversion and junction structures 741

Flow equalization and storage 744

Pumping,transmission,and distribution of reclaimed water 745

12-7 Treatment Technologies for Satellite Systems 745

Conventional technologies 745

Membrane bioreactors 746

Sequencing batch reactor 746

12-8 Integration with Existing Facilities 748

12-9 Case Study 1:Solaire Building New York,New York 751

Setting 751

Water management issues 751

Implementation 752

Lessons learned 753

12-10 Case Study 2:Water Reclamation and Reuse in Tokyo,Japan 755

Setting 755

Water management issues 755

Implementation 756

Lessons learned 758

12-11 Case Study 3:City of Upland,California 760

Setting 760

Water management issues 760

Implementation 760

Lessons learned 761

Problems and Discussion Topics 761

References 762

13 Onsite and Decentralized Systems for Water Reuse 763

Working Terminology 764

13-1 Introduction to Decentralized Systems 766

Definition of decentralized systems 766

Importance of decentralized systems 767

Integration with centralized systems 770

13-2 Types of Decentralized Systems 770

Individual onsite systems 771

Cluster systems 771

Housing development and small community systems 772

13-3 Wastewater Flowrates and Characteristics 774

Wastewater flowrates 774

Wastewater constituent concentrations 778

13-4 Treatment Technologies 785

Source separating systems 786

In-building pretreatment 788

Primary treatment 788

Secondary treatment 792

Nutrient removal 797

Disinfection processes 802

Performance 804

Reliability 804

Maintenance needs 804

13-5 Technologies for Housing Developments and Small Community Systems 806

Collection systems 807

Treatment technologies 815

13-6 Decentralized Water Reuse Opportunities 816

Landscape irrigation systems 816

Irrigation with greywater 818

Groundwater recharge 818

Self-contained recycle systems 821

Habitat development 821

13-7 Management and Monitoring of Decentralized Systems 821

Types of management structures 821

Monitoring and control equipment 824

Problems and Discussion Topics 826

References 827

14 Distribution and Storage of Reclaimed Water 829

Working Terminology 830

14-1 Issues in the Planning Process 831

Type,size,and location of facilities 831

Individual reclaimed water system versus dual distribution system 832

Public concerns and involvement 833

14-2 Planning and Conceptual Design of Distribution and Storage Facilities 833

Location of reclaimed water supply,major users,and demands 834

Quantities and pressure requirements for major demands 834

Distribution system network 836

Facility design criteria 841

Distribution system analysis 845

Optimization of distribution system 847

14-3 Pipeline Design 856

Location of reclaimed water pipelines 856

Design criteria for reclaimed water pipelines 858

Pipeline materials 858

Joints and connections 860

Corrosion protection 861

Pipe identification 862

Distribution system valves 863

Distribution system appurtenances 863

14-4 Pumping Systems 866

Pumping station location and site layout 866

Pump types 867

Pumping station performance 870

Constant versus variable speed operation 870

Valves 871

Equipment and piping layout 872

Emergency power 872

Effect of pump operating schedule on system design 875

14-5 Design of Reclaimed Water Storage Facilities 877

Location of reclaimed water reservoirs 878

Facility and site layout for reservoirs,piping,and appurtenances 879

Materials of construction 881

Protective coatings—interior and exterior 881

14-6 Operation and Maintenance of Distribution Facilities　 882

Pipelines 883

Pumping stations 884

14-7 Water Quality Management Issues in Reclaimed Water Distribution and Storage 884

Water quality issues 885

Impact of water quality issues 887

The effect of storage on water quality changes 887

Strategies for managing water quality in open and enclosed reservoirs 889

Problems and Discussion Topics 892

References 898

15 Dual Plumbing Systems 901

Working Terminology 902

15-1 Overview of Dual Plumbing Systems 902

Rationale for dual plumbing systems 902

Applications for dual plumbing systems 903

15-2 Planning Considerations for Dual Plumbing Systems 907

Applications for dual plumbing systems 907

Regulations and codes governing dual plumbing systems 908

Applicable health and safety regulations 908

15-3 Design Considerations for Dual Distribution Systems 908

Plumbing codes 908

Safeguards 908

15-4 Inspection and Operating Considerations 913

15-5 Case Study:Irvine Ranch Water District,Orange County,California 915

Setting 915

Water management issues 915

Implementation 916

Operational issues 918

Lessons learned 919

15-6 Case Study:Rouse Hill Recycled Water Area Project(Australia) 919

Setting 919

Water management issues 920

Implementation 920

Lessons learned 920

15-7 Case Study:Serrano,California 921

Setting 922

Water management issues 922

Implementation 923

Lessons learned 925

Problems and Discussion Topics 925

References 926

Part 4 Water Reuse Applications 927

16 Water Reuse Applications:An Overview 929

Working Terminology 930

16-1 Water Reuse Applications 930

Agricultural irrigation 931

Landscape irrigation 931

Industrial uses 931

Urban nonirrigation uses 933

Environmental and recreational uses 933

Groundwater recharge 933

Indirect potable reuse through surface water augmentation 933

Direct potable reuse 934

Water reuse applications in other parts of the world 934

16-2 Issues in Water Reuse 934

Resource sustainability 934

Water resource opportunities 935

Reliability of water supply 935

Economic considerations 935

Public policy 935

Regulations 936

Issues and constraints for specific applications 937

16-3 Important Factors in the Selection of Water Reuse Applications 937

Water quality considerations 937

Types of technology 939

Matching supply and demand 939

Infrastructure requirements 939

Economic feasibility(affordability) 940

Environmental considerations 941

16-4 Future Trends in Water Reuse Applications 941

Changes in regulations 942

Water supply augmentation 942

Decentralized and satellite systems 942

New treatment technologies 942

Issues associated with potable reuse 944

Problems and Discussion Topics 944

References 945

17 Agricultural Uses of Reclaimed Water 947

Working Terminology 948

17-1 Agricultural Irrigation with Reclaimed Water:An Overview 949

Reclaimed water irrigation for agriculture in the United States 950

Reclaimed water irrigation for agriculture in the world 952

Regulations and guidelines related to agricultural irrgation with reclaimed water 953

17-2 Agronomics and Water Quality Considerations 954

Soil characteristics 955

Suspended solids 958

Salinity,sodicity,and specific ion toxicity 959

Trace elements and nutrients 966

Crop selection 971

17-3 Elements for the Design of Reclaimed Water Irrigation Systems 971

Water reclamation and reclaimed water quantity and quality 977

Selection of the type of irrigation system 977

Leaching requirements 986

Estimation of water application rate 989

Field area requirements 997

Drainage systems 998

Drainage water management and disposal 1003

Storage system 1003

Irrigation scheduling 1008

17-4 Operation and Maintenance of Reclaimed Water Irrigation Systems 1008

Demand-supply management 1009

Nutrient management 1009

Public health protection 1011

Effects of reclaimed water irrigation on soils and crops 1011

Monitoring requirements 1014

17-5 Case Study:Monterey Wastewater Reclamation Study for Agriculture—Monterey,California 1015

Setting 1016

Water management issues 1016

Implementation 1016

Study results 1017

Subsequent projects 1021

Recycled water food safety study 1021

Lessons learned 1021

17-6 Case Study:Water Conserv II,Florida 1022

Setting 1023

Water management issues 1023

Implementation 1023

Importance of Water Conserv Ⅱ 1027

Lessons learned 1027

17-7 Case Study:The Virginia Pipeline Scheme,South Australia—Seasonal ASR of Reclaimed Water for irrigation 1028

Setting 1028

Water management issues 1029

Regulatory requirements 1029

Technology issues 1029

Implementation 1030

Performance and operations 1032

Lessons learned 1035

Problems and Discussion Topics 1035

References 1038

18 Landscape Irrigation with Reclaimed Water 1043

Working Terminology 1044

18-1 Landscape Irrigation:An Overview 1045

Definition of landscape irrigation 1045

Reclaimed water use for landscape irrigation in the United States 1046

18-2 Design and Operational Considerations for Reclaimed Water Landscape Irrigation Systems 1047

Water quality requirements 1047

Landscape plant selection 1050

Irrigation systems 1054

Estimation of water needs 1054

Application rate and irrigation schedule 1065

Management of demand-supply balance 1065

Operation and maintenance issues 1066

18-3 Golf Course Irrigation with Reclaimed Water 1070

Water quality and agronomic considerations 1070

Reclaimed water supply and storage 1072

Distribution system design considerations 1075

Leaching,drainage,and runoff 1076

Other considerations 1076

18-4 Irrigation of Public Areas with Reclaimed Water 1076

Irrigation of public areas 1078

Reclaimed water treatment and water quality 1079

Conveyance and distribution system 1079

Aesthetics and public acceptance 1079

Operation and maintenance issues 1080

18-5 Residential Landscape Irrigation with Reclaimed Water 1080

Residential landscape irrigation systems 1080

Reclaimed water treatment and water quality 1081

Conveyance and distribution system 1081

Operation and maintenance issues 1082

18-6 Landscape Irrigation with Decentralized Treatment and Subsurface Irrigation Systems 1082

Subsurface drip irrigation for individual on-site and cluster systems 1082

Irrigation for residential areas 1086

18-7 Case Study:Landscape Irrigation in St.Petersburg,Florida 1086

Setting 1087

Water management issues 1087

Implementation 1087

Project Greenleaf and resource management 1089

Landscape irrigation in the city of St.Petersburg 1091

Lessons learned 1093

18-8 Case Study:Residential Irrigation in El Dorado Hills,California 1093

Water management issues 1094

Implementation 1094

Education program 1096

Lessons learned 1096

Problems and Discussion Topics 1097

References 1099

19 Industrial Uses of Reclaimed Water 1103

Working Terminology 1104

19-1 Industrial Uses of Reclaimed Water:An Overview 1105

Status of water use for industrial applications in the United States 1105

Water management in industries 1107

Factors affecting the use of reclaimed water for industrial applications 1108

19-2 Water Quality Issues for Industrial Uses of Reclaimed Water 1109

General water quality considerations 1110

Corrosion issues 1110

Indexes for assessing effects of reclaimed water quality on reuse systems 1115

Corrosion management options 1126

Scaling issues 1127

Accumulation of dissolved constituents 1129

19-3 Cooling Water Systems 1132

System description 1132

Water quality considerations 1132

Design and operational considerations 1135

Management issues 1138

19-4 Other Industrial Water Reuse Applications 1141

Boilers 1141

Pulp and paper industry 1147

Textile industry 1150

Other industrial applications 1154

19-5 Case Study:Cooling Tower at a Thermal Power Generation Plant,Denver,Colorado 1155

Setting 1155

Water management issues 1156

Implementation 1158

Lessons learned 1158

19-6 Case Study:Industrial Uses of Reclaimed Water in West Basin Municipal Water District,California 1158

Setting 1158

Water management issues 1158

Implementation 1159

Lessons learned 1161

Problems and Discussion Topics 1161

References 1165

20 Urban Nonirrigation Water Reuse Applications 1169

Working Terminology 1170

20-1 Urban Water Use and Water Reuse Applications:An Overview 1171

Domestic potable water use in the United States 1171

Commercial water use in the United States 1172

Urban nonirrigation water reuse in the United States 1172

Urban nonirrigation water reuse in other countries 1172

20-2 Factors Affecting the Use of Reclaimed Water for Urban Nonirrigation Reuse Applications 1175

Infrastructure issues 1175

Water quality and supply issues 1176

Acceptance issues 1179

20-3 Air Conditioning 1179

Description of air conditioning systems 1179

Utilizing reclaimed water for air conditioning systems 1181

Water quality considerations 1181

Management issues 1183

20-4 Fire Protection 1183

Types of applications 1186

Water quality considerations 1187

Implementation issues 1187

Management issues 1188

20-5 Toilet and Urinal Flushing 1188

Types of applications 1188

Water quality considerations 1188

Implementation issues 1192

Satellite and decentralized systems 1193

Management issues 1193

20-6 Commercial Applications 1195

Car and other vehicle washing 1195

Laundries 1196

20-7 Public Water Features 1197

Fountains and waterfalls 1197

Reflecting pools 1197

Ponds and lakes in public parks 1198

20-8 Road Care and Maintenance 1198

Dust control and street cleaning 1199

Snow melting 1199

Problems and Discussion Topics 1200

References 1201

21 Environmental and Recreational Uses of Reclaimed Water 1203

Working Terminology 1204

21-1 Overview of Environmental and Recreational Uses of Reclaimed Water 1205

Types of environmental and recreational uses 1206

Important factors influencing environmental and recreational uses of reclaimed water 1207

21-2 Wetlands 1210

Types of wetlands 1210

Development of wetlands with reclaimed water 1213

Water quality considerations 1216

Operations and maintenance 1216

21-3 Stream Flow Augmentation 1222

Aquatic and riparian habitat enhancement with reclaimed water 1222

Recreational uses of streams augmented with reclaimed water 1224

Reclaimed water quality requirements 1224

Stream flow requirements 1226

Operations and maintenance 1226

21-4 Ponds and Lakes 1228

Water quality requirements 1228

Operations and maintenance 1230

Other considerations 1230

21-5 Other Uses 1231

Snowmaking 1231

Animal viewing parks 1231

21-6 Case Study:Arcata,California 1231

Setting 1232

Water management issues 1232

Implementation 1232

Lessons learned 1233

21-7 Case Study:San Luis Obispo,California 1234

Setting 1234

Water management issues 1235

Implementation 1235

Lessons learned 1238

21-8 Case Study:Santee Lakes,San Diego,California 1238

Setting 1239

Water management issues 1239

Implementation 1239

Lessons learned 1241

Problems and Discussion Topics 1242

References 1242

22 Groundwater Recharge with Reclaimed Water 1245

Working Terminology 1246

22-1 Planned Groundwater Recharge with Reclaimed Water 1248

Advantages of subsurface storage 1248

Types of groundwater recharge 1249

Components of a groundwater recharge system 1250

Technologies for groundwater recharge 1251

Selection of recharge system 1253

Recovery of recharge water 1254

22-2 Water Quality Requirements 1255

Water quality challenges for groundwater recharge 1255

Degree of pretreatment required 1255

22-3 Recharge Using Surface Spreading Basins 1256

Description 1256

Pretreatment needs 1257

Hydraulic analysis 1259

Operation and maintenance issues 1268

Performance of recharge basins 1271

Pathogens 1279

Examples of full-scale surface spreading facilities 1280

22-4 Recharge Using Vadose Zone Injection Wells 1282

Description 1282

Pretreatment needs 1283

Hydraulic analysis 1284

Operation and maintenance issues 1285

Performance of vadose zone injection wells 1286

Examples of operational full-scale vadose zone injection facilities 1286

22-5 Recharge Using Direct Injection Wells 1287

Description 1287

Pretreatment needs 1288

Hydraulic analysis 1288

Operation and maintenance issues 1290

Performance of direct injection wells 1291

Examples of full-scale direct aquifer injection facilities 1292

22-6 Other Methods Used for Groundwater Recharge 1293

Aquifer storage and recovery(ASR) 1293

Riverbank and dune filtration 1294

Enhanced river recharge 1295

Groundwater recharge using subsurface facilities 1296

22-7 Case Study:Orange County Water District Groundwater Replenishment System 1296

Setting 1297

The GWR system 1297

Implementation 1297

Lessons learned 1298

Problems and Discussion Topics 1299

References 1300

23 Indirect Potable Reuse through Surface Water Augmentation 1303

Working Terminology 1304

23-1 Overview of Indirect Potable Reuse 1305

De facto indirect potable reuse 1305

Strategies for indirect potable reuse through surface-water augmentation 1307

Public acceptance 1308

23-2 Health and Risk Considerations 1308

Pathogen and trace constituents 1308

System reliability 1309

Use of multiple barriers 1309

23-3 Planning for Indirect Potable Reuse 1309

Characteristics of the watershed 1310

Quantity of reclaimed water to be blended 1311

Water and wastewater treatment requirements 1312

Institutional considerations 1312

Cost considerations 1313

23-4 Technical Considerations for Surface-Water Augmentation in Lakes and Reservoirs 1314

Characteristics of water supply reservoirs 1314

Modeling of lakes and reservoirs 1319

Strategies for augmenting water supply reservoirs 1320

23-5 Case Study:Implementing Indirect Potable Reuse at the Upper Occoquan Sewage Authority 1323

Setting 1323

Water management issues 1323

Description of treatment components 1323

Future treatment process directions 1326

Water quality of the Occoquan Reservoir 1327

Water treatment 1328

Lessons learned 1329

23-6 Case Study:City of San Diego Water Repurification Proiect and Water Reuse Study 2005 1329

Setting 1330

Water management issues 1330

Wastewater treatment mandates 1330

Water Repurification Project 1331

2000 Updated Water Reclamation Master Plan 1332

City of San Diego Water Reuse Study 2005 1332

Lessons learned 1334

23-7 Case Study:Singapore's NEWater for Indirect Potable Reuse 1334

Setting 1335

Water management issues 1335

NEWater Factory and NEWater 1335

Implementation 1335

NEWater demonstration plant performance 1336

Project milestones 1336

Lessons learned 1337

23-8 Observations on Indirect Potable Reuse 1340

Problems and Discussion Topics 1341

References 1342

24 Direct Potable Reuse of Reclaimed Water 1345

Working Terminology 1346

24-1 Issues in Direct Potable Reuse 1346

Public perception 1347

Health risk concerns 1347

Technological capabilities 1347

Cost considerations 1348

24-2 Case Study:Emergency Potable Reuse in Chanute,Kansas 1348

Setting 1348

Water management issues 1349

Implementation 1349

Efficiency of sewage treatment and the overall treatment process 1349

Lessons learned 1351

Importance of the Chanute experience 1352

24-3 Case Study:Direct Potable Reuse in Windhoek,Namibia 1352

Setting 1353

Water management issues 1353

Implementation 1354

Lessons learned 1359

24-4 Case Study:Direct Potable Reuse Demonstration Project in Denver,Colorado 1361

Setting 1362

Water management issues 1362

Treatment technologies 1362

Water quality testing and studies 1364

Animal health effects testing 1371

Cost estimates on the potable reuse advanced treatment plant 1372

Public information program 1373

Lessons learned 1374

24-5 Observations on Direct Potable Reuse 1375

Problems and Discussion Topics 1376

References 1376

Part 5 Implementing Water Reuse 1379

25 Planning for Water Reclamation and Reuse 1381

Working Terminology 1382

25-1 Integrated Water Resources Planning 1384

Integrated water resources planning process 1385

Clarifying the problem 1386

Formulating objectives 1386

Gathering background information 1386

Identifying project alternatives 1388

Evaluating and ranking alternatives 1389

Developing implementation plans 1389

25-2 Engineering Issues in Water Reclamation and Reuse Planning 1392

25-3 Environmental Assessment and Public Participation 1392

Environmental assessment 1393

Public participation and outreach 1393

25-4 Legal and Institutional Aspects of Water Reuse 1393

Water rights law 1393

Water rights and water reuse 1395

Policies and regulations 1397

Institutional coordination 1397

25-5 Case Study:Institutional Arrangements at the Walnut Valley Water District,California 1397

Water management issues 1397

Lessons learned 1398

25-6 Reclaimed Water Market Assessment 1399

Steps in data collection and analysis 1399

Comparison of water sources 1399

Comparison with costs and revenues 1401

Market assurances 1402

25-7 Factors Affecting Monetary Evaluation of Water Reclamation and Reuse 1406

Common weaknesses in water reclamation and reuse planning 1407

Perspectives in project analysis 1408

Planning and design time horizons 1408

Time value of money 1409

Inflation and cost indices 1409

25-8 Economic Analysis for Water Reuse 1411

Comparison of alternatives by present worth analysis 1412

Measurement of costs and inflation 1412

Measurement of benefits 1412

Basic assumptions of economic analyses 1414

Replacement costs and salvage values 1415

Computation of economic cost 1417

Project optimization 1420

Influence of subsidies 1421

25-9 Financial Analysis 1422

Construction financial plans and revenue programs 1422

Cost allocation 1423

Influence on freshwater rates 1423

Other financial analysis considerations 1423

Sources of revenue and pricing of reclaimed water 1424

Financial feasibility analysis 1425

Sensitivity analysis and conservative assumptions 1429

Problems and Discussion Topics 1430

References 1432

26 Public Participation and Implementation Issues 1435

Working Terminology 1436

26-1 How Is Water Reuse Perceived? 1436

Public attitude about water reuse 1436

Public beliefs about water reuse options 1440

26-2 Public Perspectives on Water Reuse 1440

Water quality and public health 1441

Economics 1441

Water supply and growth 1441

Environmental justice/equity issues 1441

The"Yuck"factor 1442

Other issues 1442

26-3 Public Participation and Outreach 1443

Why involve the public? 1443

Legal mandates for public involvement 1443

Defining the"public" 1444

Approaches to public involvement 1444

Techniques for public participation and outreach 1446

Some pitfalls in types of public involvement 1448

26-4 Case Study:Difficulties Encountered in Redwood City's Landscape Irrigation Project 1450

Setting 1450

Water management issues 1450

Water reclamation project planned 1450

Lessons learned 1452

26-5 Case Study:Water Reclamation and Reuse in the City of St.Petersburg,Florida 1453

Setting 1453

Water and wastewater management issues 1453

Development of reclaimed water system 1455

Current status of water reclamation and reuse 1456

Lessons learned 1456

Access to city's proactive water reclamation and reuse information 1458

26-6 Observations on Water Reclamation and Reuse 1459

Problems and Discussion Topics 1459

References 1460

Appendixes 1463

A Conversion Factors 1463

B Physical Properties of Selected Gases and the Composition of Air 1471

C Physical Properties of Water 1475

D Statistical Analysis of Data 1479

E Review of Water Reclamation Activities in the United States and in Selected Countries 1485

F Evolution of Nonpotable Reuse Criteria and Groundwater Recharge Regulations in California 1509

G Values of the Hantush Function F(α,β) and the Well Function W(u) 1523

H Interest Factors and Their Use 1525

Indexes 1529

Name Index 1529

Subject Index 1541