BACKGROUND 3
1 Dialect and language 3
1.1 Mutual intelligibility 3
1.2 Language,dialect and accent 4
1.3 Geographical dialect continua 5
1.4 Social dialect continua 7
1.5 Autonomy and heteronomy 9
1.6 Discreteness and continuity 12
Further information 12
2 Dialect geography 13
2.1 The impetus for dialect geography 13
2.2 An outline history of dialect geography 15
2.3 The methods of dialect geography 21
2.3.1 The questionnaire 21
2.3.2 Linguistic maps 25
2.3.3 The selection of informants 29
Further information 31
3 Dialectology and linguistics 32
3.1 Dialectology and philology 32
3.2 Structural dialectology 33
3.2.1 Inventory,distribution and incidence 36
3.2.2 Lexical correspondences 37
3.3 Generative dialectology 39
3.4 Polylectal grammars 42
Further information 44
4 Urban dialectology 45
4.1 Social dialects 45
4.2 Urban dialects 45
4.3 Representativeness 47
4.4 Obtaining data 48
4.5 Classifying informants 49
4.6 The linguistic variable 49
Further information 53
SOCIAL VARIATION 57
5 Social differentiation and language 57
5.1 Language and social class 57
5.2 Stylistic differentiation 59
5.3 Sex differentiation 61
5.4 Other aspects of social differentiation in language 63
5.4.1 Language and ethnic group 63
5.4.2 Social newtworks 64
5.4.3 Individual characteristics 67
Further information 68
6 Sociolinguistic structure and linguistic innovation 70
6.1 Indicators and markers 70
6.1.1 Overt stigmatisation 72
6.1.2 Linguistic change 72
6.1.3 Phonological contrast 73
6.1.4 Stereotypes 75
6.2 The study of linguistic change 76
6.2.1 Patterns of age differentiation 78
6.3 Mechanisms of linguistic change 81
6.3.1 Stylistic variation 82
6.3.2 The role of sex 83
6.3.3 Covert prestige 85
Further information 86
SPATIAL VARIATION 89
7 Boundaries 89
7.1 Isoglosses 89
7.2 Patterns of isoglosses 91
7.2.1 Criss-cross 91
7.2.2 Transitions 93
7.2.3 Relic areas 94
7.3 Bundles 94
7.4 Grading of isoglosses 96
7.5 Cultural correlates of isoglosses 100
7.6 Isoglosses and dialect variation 103
Further information 103
8 Transitions 104
8.1 Gradual and abrupt transition 104
8.2 Introduction to the variables 105
8.3 The transition zone for（u） 106
8.4 Mixed and fudged lects 110
8.5 The variable（a） 113
8.6 Transitions in general 118
8.7 Dialect variation and mapping 118
8.7.1 A relic feature in the west midlands 119
8.7.2 The interplay of social and geographical variation 120
8.7.3 Mapping social variation directly 121
Further information 123
MECHANISMS OF VARIATION 127
9 Variability 127
9.1 The variable as a structural unit 127
9.1.1 Variability as accidental 128
9.1.2 Variability as essential 128
9.1.3 Variable constraints 130
9.2 Implicational scales 131
9.2.1 Default singulars in Alabama 132
9.2.2 （C？）in northern England 133
9.3 Handling quantitative data 135
9.4 Quantifying geographic variables 136
9.4.1 Dialectometry 137
9.4.2 Multidimensional scaling 140
9.4.3 A transition zone in Ohio 142
9.4.4 Correspondence analysis of the matrix 144
9.4.5 Linguistic distance and geographic distance 147
Further information 148
10 Diffusion:sociolinguistic and lexical 149
10.1 Real time and apparent time 149
10.1.1 Age-graded changes 151
10.2 Innovators of change 153
10.2.1 A class-based innovation in Norwich 153
10.2.2 A sex-based innovation in Belfast 155
10.2.3 An age-based innovation in the Golden Horseshoe 157
10.3 Lexical diffusion 159
Further information 165
11 Diffusion:geographical 166
11.1 Spatial diffusion of language 167
11.2 Spatial linguistics 167
11.3 Linguistic areas 168
11.4 Uvular /r/ in Europe 170
11.5 Diffusion down the urban hierarchy 172
11.6 Cartographical representation of spatial diffusion 176
11.6.1 The Norwegian study 177
11.7 Explanations in sociolinguistic dialect geography 178
11.8 Further refinements to the model 185
Further information 186
12 Cohesion in dialectology 187
Further information 189
References 190
Index 198