Chapter 1 Introduction to Earth Science 1
1 What is Earth Science 2
2 Why is Earth Science so Important 2
2.1 Environmental Problems 3
2.2 Resources 4
3 Earth's Spheres 4
3.1 Hydroshpere 5
3.2 Atmosphere 5
3.3 Biosphere 5
3.4 Lithosphere 6
4 Earthas a System 7
Chapter 2 Earth in the Solar System 9
1 Orbits 10
2 Sizes 11
3 Classification 12
4 The Origin of the Solar System 13
Chapter 3 Composition of the Earth 15
1 Chemical Composition of the Earth 16
2 Minerals 16
2.1 Definition 16
2.2 Differences Between Minerals and Rocks 19
2.3 Physical Properties of Minerals 19
2.4 Mineral Classification 20
3 Rocks 22
3.1 Igneous Rocks 22
3.2 Sedimentary Rocks 26
3.3 Metamorphic Rocks 31
3.4 Rock Cycle 34
Chapter 4 Structure of the Earth 37
1 Interior Structure of the Earth 38
1.1 Crust 39
1.2 Mantle 40
1.3 Core 41
2 Plate Tectonics 42
2.1 Hypothesis of Continental Drift 43
2.2 Seafloor Spreading 46
2.3 Plate Tectonics Theory 51
Chapter 5 Geologic Time 63
1 Relative Time 64
1.1 Principle of Original Horizontality 64
1.2 Law of Superposition 65
1.3 Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships 66
1.4 Principle of Faunal Succession 67
1.5 Unconformities 70
2 Absolute Time 72
2.1 Fundamentals of Radiometric Dating 73
2.2 Modern Dating Metthods 76
3 Geologic Time Scale 77
3.1 Structure of the Time Scale 77
3.2 Major Events in Different Geologic Time 79
Chapter 6 Earthquake 85
1 What is an Earthquake 86
2 Earthquake Waves 88
3 Location of Earthquake 89
3.1 Destruction Caused by Seismic Vibrations 89
3.2 Tsunami 92
4 Earthquake Prediction 94
Chapter 7 Volcano 97
1 The Nature of Volcanic Activity 98
2 Materials Extruded During an Eruption 99
2.1 Lava Flows 99
2.2 Gases 99
3 Volcanoes and Volcanic Eruptions 100
3.1 Shield Volcanoes 100
3.2 Cinder Cones 101
3.3 Composite Cones 103
3.4 Volcanic Pipes and Necks 104
3.5 Formation of Calderas 104
4 Fissure Eruption 105
5 Volcanoes and Climate 106
6 Intrusive Igneous Activity 108
Chapter 8 Weathering 111
1 Mechanical Weathering 112
1.1 Frost Wedging 113
1.2 Unloading 113
1.3 Thernal Expansion 114
2 Chemical Weathering 115
3 Biological Weathering 117
4 Rates of Weathering 118
Chapter 9 Depositional Environments 121
1 Alluvial Fans and Braided Streams 122
2 Deltaic Plain 122
3 Fluvial Environments 123
4 Marine Environments 124
5 Delta Fringe Deposits 125
6 Deep Water Deposits 129
7 Aeolian Deposits 129
Chapter 10 Running Water 131
1 Water Cycle 132
2 Running Water 135
2.1 Streamflow 135
2.2 Changes Downstream 137
2.3 The Effect of Urbanization on Discharge 138
3 Base Level and Graded Streams 138
4 Work of Streams 140
4.1 Erosion 140
4.2 Transportation 140
4.3 Deposition 142
5 Stream Valleys 143
6 Placer Deposits 147
7 Drainage Systems and Patterns 147
8 Stages of Valley Development 149
Chapter 11 Groundwater 151
1 Distribution and Movement of Groundwater 153
1.1 Unsaturated Zone and Saturated Zone 154
1.2 Groundwater Movement 156
2 Groundwater Classifications 156
3 Chemical Composition of Groundwater 157
4 Recharge and Discharge of Groundwater 157
4.1 Groundwater Recharge 158
4.2 Groundwater Discharge 158
4.3 Groundwater Recharge and Discharge Affected on Quality 161
5 Groundwater Systems 161
6 Groundwater Behaviors 163
7 Wells 163
7.1 Three Basic Types of Wells 165
7.2 Well Construction 165
7.3 Well Contamination 166
8 Geotthermal Energy 166
9 Environmental Problems Associated with Groundwater 167
Chapter 12 Ocean 171
1 Geography of the Ocean 172
2 Ocean Floor Landform 175
2.1 Continental Margins 175
2.2 Oceanic Ridge 177
2.3 Ocean Basin Floor 178
2.4 Seafloor Sediments 181
3 Ocean Water 181
3.1 Composition of Seawater 182
3.2 Ocean Temperature Variation 183
3.3 Ocean Density Variation 184
4 Dynamic Ocean 184
4.1 Ocean Current 185
4.2 Ocean Wave 187
4.3 Tides 190
4.4 Coast 193
4.5 Tsunami 195
Chapter 13 Weather and Climate 197
1 Composition and Structure of the Atmosphere 198
1.1 Atmospheric Composition 198
1.2 Atmospheric Structure 200
2 Thermal Energy and Temperature of Atmosphere 201
2.1 Radiation 201
2.2 Mechanisms of Heat Transfer 203
2.3 Heating the Atrnosphere 204
3 Moisture in the Air 207
3.1 Changes of State 207
3.2 Humidity 209
3.3 Necessary Conditions for Condensation 210
3.4 Condense Phenomena on the Ground and in the Air 212
3.5 Precipitation 212
4 Pressure and Wind 215
4.1 Reasons of Air Pressure Change 215
4.2 Air Pressure Field 215
4.3 Factors Affecting Wind 215
4.5 Circulation of the Atmosphere 218
5 Weather Systems 220
5.1 Air Masses 221
5.2 Fronts 222
5.3 Cyclone and Anticyclone 225
6 Climate Formation 227
6.1 Properties of Climate Systems 227
6.2 Circulating Factors of Climate Formation 228
6.3 Local Winds 228
7 Climate Change and Human Impact on Climate 229
7.1 History Data of Climate Changes 230
7.2 Factors of Climate Change 230
7.3 Human Activity Impact on Climate 231
7.4 Urban Clinate 232
7.5 International Weather Modification 233
Chapter 14 Energy 239
1 Coal 241
1.1 Formation of Coal 241
1.2 Types of Coal 242
1.3 Methods of Mining 243
1.4 Uses of Coal 244
1.5 World Coal Reserves 246
1.6 Environmental Effects 248
2 Petroleum 248
2.1 Composition 248
2.2 Formation 249
2.3 Petroleum Reservoirs 250
2.4 Petroleum Exploration 250
2.5 Consumption 252
3 Natural Gas 252
3.1 Sources 253
3.2 Storage and Transport 254
3.3 Uses of Natural Gas 255
4 Nuclear Energy 256
5 Renewable Energy 257
5.1 Wind Power 258
5.2 Water Power 259
5.3 Solar Energy 259
5.4 Biofuel 260
5.5 Geothermal Energy 260