Part A Introduction 1
1 Introduction: What is International Criminal Law? 1
1.1 International criminal law 1
1.2 Other concepts of international criminal law 3
1.3 Sources of international criminal law 6
1.4 International criminal law and other areas of law 9
1.5 A body of criminal law 12
2 The Objectives of International Criminal Law 17
2.1 Introduction 17
2.2 The aims of international criminal justice 18
2.3 Alternatives and complements to criminal prosecution 30
Part B Prosecutions in National Courts 37
3 Jurisdiction 37
3.1 Introduction 37
3.2 The forms of jurisdiction 37
3.3 Conceptual matters 39
3.4 The 'traditional' heads of jurisdiction 40
3.5 Universal jurisdiction 44
4 National Prosecutions of International Crimes 54
4.1 Introduction 54
4.2 National prosecutions 54
4.3 State obligations to prosecute or extradite 58
4.4 Domestic criminal law and criminal jurisdiction 61
4.5 Statutory limitations 64
4.6 Principle of non-retroactivity 66
4.7 Ne bis in idem or double jeopardy 67
4.8 Practical obstacles to national prosecutions 69
5 State Cooperation with Respect to National Proceedings 71
5.1 Introduction 71
5.2 International agreements 72
5.3 Some basic features 73
5.4 Extradition 79
5.5 Mutual legal assistance 86
5.6 Transfer of proceedings 88
5.7 Enforcement of penalties 88
Part C International Prosecutions 91
6 The History of International Criminal Prosecutions:Nuremberg and Tokyo 91
6.1 Introduction 91
6.2 The Commission on the Responsibility of the Authors of the War 91
6.3 The Nuremberg International Military Tribunal 92
6.4 The Tokyo International Military Tribunal 96
6.5 Control Council Law No. 10 trials and military commissions in the Pacific sphere 100
7 The ad hoc International Criminal Tribunals 102
7.1 Introduction 102
7.2 The International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia 102
7.3 The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda 112
8 The International Criminal Court 119
8.1 Introduction 119
8.2 The creation of the ICC 119
8.3 Structure and composition of the ICC 124
8.4 Crimes within the jurisdiction of the ICC 125
8.5 Complementarity 127
8.6 Initiation of proceedings (the 'trigger mechanisms') 133
8.7 Jurisdiction: personal, territorial and temporal 135
8.8 Deferral of investigation or prosecution 138
8.9 Enforcement of the ICC's decisions 139
8.10 Opposition to the ICC 139
8.11 Early developments at the ICC 145
9 Other Courts with International Elements 149
9.1 Introduction 149
9.2 Courts established by agreement between the United Nations and a State 150
9.3 Courts established by the United Nations or other international administration 155
9.4 Courts established by a State with international support 160
9.5 Lockerbie: an ad hoc solution for a particular incident 162
9.6 Relationship to the ICC 162
Part D Substantive Law of International Crimes 165
10 Genocide 165
10.1 Introduction 165
10.2 The protected groups 169
10.3 Material elements 174
10.4 Mental elements 179
10.5 Other acts 185
11 Crimes Against Humanity 187
11.1 Introduction 187
11.2 Common elements (the contextual threshold) 191
11.3 Prohibited acts 200
12 War Crimes 221
12.1 Introduction 221
12.2 Common issues 232
12.3 Specific offences 241
13 Aggression 262
13.1 Introduction 262
13.2 State responsibility for unlawful use of force 267
13.3 Material elements 271
13.4 Mental elements 274
13.5 Prosecution of aggression in the ICC 275
14 Transnational Crimes, Terrorism and Torture 281
14.1 Introduction 281
14.2 Terrorism 283
14.3 Torture 294
Part E Principles and Procedures of International Prosecutions 301
15 General Principles of Liability 301
15.1 Introduction 301
15.2 Perpetration/commission 302
15.3 Joint criminal enterprise 304
15.4 Aiding and abetting 310
15.5 Ordering, instigating, soliciting, inducing and inciting 312
15.6 Planning, preparation, attempt and conspiracy 316
15.7 Mental elements 318
15.8 Command/superior responsibility 320
16 Defences/Grounds for Excluding Criminal Responsibility 331
16.1 Introduction 331
16.2 The ICC Statute and defences 332
16.3 Mental incapacity 333
16.4 Intoxication 335
16.5 Self-defence, defence of others and of property 337
16.6 Duress and necessity 339
16.7 Mistake of fact and law 341
16.8 Superior orders 342
16.9 Other'defences' 346
17 Procedures of International Criminal Investigations and Prosecutions 349
17.1 International criminal procedures 349
17.2 International criminal proceedings and human rights 353
17.3 Actors in the proceedings and their roles 359
17.4 Jurisdiction and admissibility procedures 364
17.5 Commencement and discontinuance of a criminal investigation 365
17.6 The criminal investigation 366
17.7 Coercive measures 368
17.8 Prosecution and indictment 373
17.9 Pre-trial proceedings-preparations for trial 378
17.10 Evidentiary rules 382
17.11 Admission of guilt, guilty pleas, plea-bargaining 384
17.12 Trial and judgment 386
17.13 Appeals proceedings 388
17.14 Revision 390
17.15 Offences against the administration of justice 391
18 Sentencing, Penalties and Reparations to Victims 393
18.1 International punishment of crimes 393
18.2 Purposes of sentencing 395
18.3 Sentencing practice 396
18.4 Reparations to victims 400
18.5 Sentencing procedures 400
18.6 Pardon, early release and review of sentence 401
18.7 Enforcement 401
Part F Relationship Between National and International Systems 405
19 State Cooperation with the International Courts and Tribunals 405
19.1 Characteristics of the cooperation regimes 405
19.2 Obligation to cooperate 406
19.3 Non-States Parties and international organizations 410
19.4 Non-compliance 412
19.5 Cooperation and the ICC complementarity principle 412
19.6 Authority to seek cooperation and defence rights 413
19.7 Arrest and surrender 414
19.8 Other forms of legal assistance 416
19.9 Domestic implementation 419
19.10 An assessment 420
20 Immunities 422
20.1 Introduction 422
20.2 Functional immunity 428
20.3 Affirmation of personal immunity before national courts 434
20.4 Relinquishment of personal immunity in international courts 438
20.5 Conclusion 444
21 Conclusions: The Future of International Criminal Law 446
21.1 Introduction 446
21.2 International courts and tribunals 446
21.3 Developments in national prosecutions of international crimes 447
21.4 The trend towards accountability 449
21.5 The development of international criminal law 451
21.6 The path forward (or back?) 453
Index 456