PART Ⅰ PRELIMINARY TOPICS 1
Ⅰ. SOURCES OF THE LAW 1
1. Introductory 1
2. The Statute of the International Court of Justice 3
3. International Custom 4
4. ‘Lawmaking' Treaties and Other Material Sources 12
5. General Principles of Law 15
6. General Principles of International Law 19
7. Judicial Decisions 20
8. The Writings of Publicists 25
9. Equity in Judgments and Advisory Opinions of the Inter-national Court 27
10. Considerations of Humanity 29
11. Legitimate Interests 30
Note on Comity 31
Note on Codification 31
Ⅱ. THE RELATION OF MUNICIPAL AND INTER-NATIONAL LAW 33
1. Theoretical Problems 33
2. Theories of Co-ordination 36
3. The Relation between Obligations of States and Municipal Law 36
4. The Position of the Individual 38
5. Issues of Municipal Law before International Tribunals 39
6. Municipal Laws as ‘Facts' before International Tribunals 41
7. Issues of International Law before Municipal Courts 44
8. The Doctrine of Incorporation in British and Common-wealth Courts 45
9. Treaties and the Interpretation of Statutes in the United Kingdom 50
10. The Reception of International Law in Other States 52
11. Relation of Executive and Judiciary 54
12. Res fudicata and the Two Systems 55
13. Relation to the Sources of International Law 57
14. Conclusion 58
PART Ⅱ PERSONALITY AND RECOGNITION 60
Ⅲ. SUBJECTS OF THE LAW 60
1. Introductory 60
2. Personality and Protected Status 62
3. Established Legal Persons 62
4. Special Types of Personality 66
5. Controversial Candidatures 69
6. Some Consequences 71
7. Problems of Choice of Law 72
Ⅳ. INCIDENCE AND CONTINUITY OF STATE-HOOD 73
1. Introductory 73
2. Legal Criteria of Statehood 74
3. States in Siatu Nascendi 82
4. Illegal Occupation and the Influence of Fus Cogens 82
5. Necessary Legal Constructions 83
6. Membership of International Organizations and Agencies 84
7. Identity and Continuity of States 84
8. Micro-States 88
Ⅴ. RECOGNITION OF STATES AND GOVERNMENTS 89
1. Recognition as a General Category 89
2. States and Governments in Relation to Recognition 90
3. The Varied Legal Consequences of Acts of Recognition and Policies of Non-Recognition 93
4. Is there a Duty of Recognition? 94
5. Recognition of Governments 95
6. De Jure and De Facto Recognition 96
7. Retroactivity 97
8. Implied Recognition 98
9. Collective Recognition: Membership of Organizations 99
10. Non-Recognition and Sanctions 100
11. Issues of Recognition before National Courts 101
PART Ⅲ TERRITORIAL SOVEREIGNTY 109
Ⅵ. TERRITORIAL SOVEREIGNTY 109
1. The Concept of Territory 109
2. Sovereignty and Jurisdiction 109
3. Sovereignty and Ownership 110
4. Administration and Sovereignty 111
5. Sovereignty and Responsibility. The Ownership of Rights 111
6. Administration Divorced from State Sovereignty 112
7. Territory the Sovereignty of which is Indeterminate 112
8. Terminable and Reversionary Rights 113
9. Residual Sovereignty 114
10. International Leases 115
11. Use and Possession Granted in Perpetuity 116
12. Demilitarized and Neutralized Territory 117
13. The Concept of Territory: the Principle of Effective Control Applied by National Courts 117
14. Condominia 118
15. Vassalage, Suzerainty, and Protection 119
16. Mandates and Trust Territories 120
17. Parts of State Territory 120
18. Restrictions on Disposition of Territory 123
19. Capatity to Transfer or Acquire Territory 125
20. The Concept of Title 126
21. The Determination of Frontiers 127
22. Nemo dat quod non habet 128
Ⅶ. THE CREATION AND TRANSFER OF TERRITOR-IAL SOVEREIGNTY 130
1. Introducto 130
2. Historical Changes in Concepts of Law 131
3. The Doctrine of Inter-Temporal Law 131
4. Critical Dates 133
5. The Modes of Acquisition 134
6. Original and Derivative Title 135
7. Roots of Title 136
8. Effective Occupation 141
9. Abandonment or Derelictio 148
10. Discovery 149
11. Papal Grants 150
12. Symbolic Annexation 151
13. Extent of Sovereignty: Geographical Doctrines 153
14. Arctic and Antarctic Sectors 154
15. Accretion, Erosion and Avulsion 155
16. Acquisitive Prescription 156
17. Acquiescence and Recognition 163
18. Estoppel 164
19. Novation 165
20. Doctrine of Reversion 166
21. Relative Title 166
22. Historical Consolidation of Title 168
23. Acquisition of Maritime Territory and Other Topics 170
24. Problems of Alienability 173
Ⅷ. STATUS OF TERRITORY: FURTHER PROBLEMS 175
1. International Procedures Relating to Territorial Dispositions 175
2. Capacity of the United Nations to Administer Territory 178
3. Legal Regimes apart om State Sovereignty 179
PART Ⅳ LAW OF THE SEA 183
Ⅸ. TERRITORIAL SEA, CONTIGUOUS ZONES, AND ANALOGOUS CLAIMS 183
A. Territorial Sea 183
1. Introductory 183
2. Baseline for Measurement of the Territorial Sea 186
3. Straight Baselines: Recent Developments 190
4. Breadth of the Territorial Sea 191
5. Is Delimitation a Liberty of Coastal States? 194
6. The Present Legal Regime 196
7. Attempts to Establish a Uniform Breadth by Multilateral Convention 197
8. Baselines: Further Problems 199
9. Legal Regime of the Territorial Sea 203
B. Specialized Righis over the High Seas 209
1. Introductory 209
2. The Concept of the Contiguous Zone 210
3. Permissible Types of Zone 211
4. Delimitation of the Contiguous Zone 215
5. Problems of Enforcement 215
6. Other Zones for Special Purposes 217
Ⅹ. SUBMARINE AREAS: CONTINENTAL SHELF,SEABED, AND OCEAN FLOOR 222
1. Classification of Submarine Areas 222
2. Continental Shelf 222
3. Seabed and Ocean Floor 233
4. Special Cases 236
Ⅺ. THE REGIME OF THE HIGH SEAS 237
1. Introductory 237
2. The Freedom of the High Seas 238
3. The Maintenance of Order on the High Seas 242
4. Exceptions to the Principle ofthe Freedom of the High Seas 243
5. Jurisdiction over Ships on the High Seas 254
6. Oil Pollution Casualties and ‘Pirate' Radio 255
PART Ⅴ COMMON AMENITIES AND CO-OPERATION IN THE USE OF RESOURCES 258
Ⅻ. COMMON AMENITIES AND CO-OPERATION IN THE USE OFRESOURCES 258
1. Introduction 258
2. Economic Aid 259
3. Access to Resources: the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy 261
4. Reatrictive Practices 262
5. Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas 263
6. Antarctica 265
7. Outer Space 266
8. International Rivers 270
9. Canals 275
10. Straits 279
11. Land locked States and Enclaves 283
12. Extra-Hazardous Activities and Problems of Neighbourhood 285
13. The International Sea-bed Area 286
PART Ⅵ STATE JURSDICTION 287
ⅩⅢ. SOVEREIGNTY AND EQUALITY OF STATES 287
1. In General 287
2. Sovereignty and the Application of Rules 288
3. Sovereignty and Legal Personality 289
4. Sovereignty and Competence 289
5. Membership of Organizations 290
6. The Reserved Domain of Domestic Jurisdiction 291
7. Article 2, Paragraph 7, of the United Nations Charter 293
8. International Tribunals and the Plea of Domestic Jurisdic-tion 295
ⅩⅣ.JURISDICTIONAL COMPETENCE 298
1. In General 298
2. Civil Jurisdiction 298
3. Criminal Jurisdiction 299
4.The Relations of the Separate Principles 305
5. Extra-territorial Enforcement Measures 306
6. A General View of the Law 309
7. Cognate Questions, Including Extradition 314
8. Special Cases of Concurrent Jurisdiction 316
ⅩⅤ. PRIVILEGES AND IMMUNITIES OF FOREIGN STATES 321
1. Introductory 321
2. The Distinction between Non-justiciability and Immunity as a Jurisdictional Bar 322
3. The Rationale of Jurisdictional Immunity 325
4. State Immunity: Controversy over its Extent 326
5. The Distinction between Acts Fure Imperii and Fure Gestionis 330
6. Some Questions of Policy and Principle 332
7. The European Convention on State Immunity 334
8. The Evolution of the English Cases 336
9. Waiver of Immunity 339
10. The Principle of Reciprocity 340
11. Other Exceptions to the Principle of Immunity 340
12. Political Subdivisions and State Agencies 341
13. Jurisdictional Immunities: Treaty Provisions 343
14. Attachment and Seizure in Execution 343
15. Specialized Privileges and Immunities 344
ⅩⅥ. DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR RELATIONS 345
1. Diplomatic Relations: Introductory 345
2. General Legal Aspects of Diplomatic Relations 346
3. Staff, Premises, and Facilities of Missions 348
4. Inviolability of Missions 351
5. Inviolability of Diplomatic Agents 353
6. Personal Immunities from Local Jurisdiction 354
7. Immunity from Jurisdiction for Official Acts （Ratione Materiae） 356
8. Immunity om Application of Certain Local Laws 357
9. Some other Aspects of Immunity 357
10. Consular Relations 359
11. Special Missions 362
12. The Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Inter-nationally Protected Persons 362
ⅩⅦ. RESERVATIONS FROM TERRITORIAL SOVE-REIGNTY 364
1. Territorial Privileges by Concession 364
2. Other Restrictions on Territorial Supremacy 375
3. External Imposition of Governmental Functions without the Consent of the Sovereign 376
4. The Regulation of Rights 376
PART Ⅶ RULES OF ATTRIBUTION （APART FROM TERRITORIAL SOVEREIGNTY AND STATE JURISDICTION） 380
ⅩⅧ. THE RELATIONS OF NATIONALITY 380
1. The Doctrine of the Freedom of States in Matters of Nation-ality 380
2. Opinions of Governments on the Iasue of Autonomy 383
3. The Convention Concerning Certain Questions Relating to the Conflict of Nationality Laws 385
4. Nationality Rules Commonly Adopted by States 385
5. Legal Status of the ‘General Principles' 392
6. The Logical Application of Rules of International Law 394
7. State Responsibility and the Doctrine of the Genuine Link 396
8. Nationality of Claims 398
9. Diplomatic Protection 401
10. Nationality by Estoppel 403
11. Compulsory Change of Nationality 404
12. The Functional Approach to Nationality 405
13. The Principle of Effective Link and the Judgment in the Nottebohm Case 406
ⅩⅨ. SOME RULES OF ATTRIBUTION: CORPORA-TIONS AND SPECIFIC ASSETS 421
1. General Aspects 421
2. Corporations 421
3. Ships 424
4. Aircraft 426
5. Space Vehicles 428
6. Property in General 428
7. Assets of International Organizations 429
PART Ⅷ THE LAW OF RESPONSIBILITY 431
ⅩⅩ. THE RESPONSIBILITY OF STATES 431
1. The Relations of the Subject 431
2. The Basis and Nature of State Responsibility 431
3. Boundaries of Responsibility 435
4. Objective Responsibility 436
5. Calpa 439
6. Intention and Motive 440
7. The Individuality of Issues: the Corfu Chasscl Case 441
8. Liability for Lawful Acts. Abuse of Rights 443
9. Responsibility for the Acts of State Organs, Offcials, Revolu-tionaries, and Others 445
10. Agency and Joint Tortfeasors 454
11. The Types of Damnum and the Forms and Function of Reparation 457
12. Compensation, Damages （Dommages-Interets） 463
13. Justifications 464
14. The Nature of a Legal Interest: Locus Standi 466
15. Causes of Action 473
16. Control of Discretionary Powers 475
17. Ultra-hazardous Activities 476
ⅩⅪ. THE ADMISSIBILITY OF STATE CLAIMS 478
1. Introductory 478
2. Diplomatic Negotiations 479
3. Legal Disputes 479
4. Absence of a Legal Interest of the Plaintiff 480
5. Diplomatic Protection: the Nationality of Claims 480
6. Exhaustion of Local Remedies 495
7. Extinctive Prescription 505
8. Waiver of Claims 506
9. Other Grounds of Inadmissibility 506
10. Counter-claims 507
11. Foreign Acts of State in Municipal Courts 507
ⅩⅫ. SOME INCIDENTS OF ILLEGALITY AND THE CONCEPT OF JUS COGENS 509
1. The Varying Content of Iegality 509
2. Objective Consequences of Illegal Events 510
3. General Wrongs: Abuse of State Competence 510
4. Ex injuria non oritur jus 511
5. Fus Cogens 512
6. The Obligation of Putting an End to an Illegal Situation 515
PART Ⅸ THE PROTECTION OF INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS 518
ⅩⅩⅢ. INJURY TO THE PERSONS AND PROPERTY OF ALIENS ON STATE TERRITORY 518
1. State and Individual 518
2. Admission, Expulsion, and Liabilities of Aliens 519
3. General Principles 521
4. The Standard of National Treatment 523
5. The International Minimum Standard 524
6. The Two Standards in Perspective 525
7. Relevant Forms of Delictual Responsibility 528
8. Denial of Justice 529
9. Expropriation of Foreign Property 531
10. The Compensation Rule 533
11. The Principle of National Treatment 536
12. Control of Major National Resources 537
13. Expropriation Unlawful per se 538
14. The General Assembly Resolution of 1962 on Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources 540
15. The Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States 541
16. Conclusions on Expropriation 543
17. Legal Devices Adopted by Investors and Hosts to Foreign Capital 545
18. Breaches and Annulment of State Contracts 547
19. Foreign Investment Agreements 551
ⅩⅩⅣ. THE PROTECTION OF INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS: HUMAN RIGHTS AND SELF-DETER-MINATION 552
1. Sovereignty and Domestic Jurisdiction 552
2. Rights Conferred by Treaty 553
3. The Individual and the State 554
4. Nationality and the Concept of Territory. 559
5. The Individual as Representative and Agent 560
6. The Individual and International Criminal Responsibility 561
7. International Protection of Human Rights 564
8. Recent Developments 576
9. The Individual before Tribunals Exercising International Jurisdiction 577
10. The Principle of Self-Determination 593
11. The Standard of Non-discrimination 596
12. Evaluation and Synthesis 598
PART Ⅹ INTERNATIONAL TRANSACTIONS 600
ⅩⅩⅤ. THE LAW OF TREATIES 600
1. Introductory 600
2. Conclusion of Treaties 602
3. Reservations 605
4. Entry into Force, Deposit, and Registration 608
5. Invalidity of Treaties 610
6. Termination and Suspension of Treaties 613
7. Invalidity, Termination, and Suspension: General Rules 618
8. Application and Effects of Treaties 619
9. Amendment and Modification of Treaties 622
10. Interpretation of Treaties 623
11. Classification of Treaties 630
12. Participation in General Multilateral Treaties 631
ⅩⅩⅥ. OTHER TRANSACTIONS: AGENCY AND REPRE-SENTATION 633
1. Informal Agreements 633
2. Quasi-Legislative Acts 633
3. Unilateral Acts 634
4. Estoppel （Preclusion） 637
5. Agency and Representation 639
ⅩⅩⅦ. TECHNIQUES OF SUPERVISION AND PROTEC-TION 641
1. Introductory 641
2. Reporting Procedures 641
3. Fact-finding Bodies 642
4. Political Supervision 642
5. Complaints Procedures apart from Adjudication 643
6. Judicial Supervision 645
7. Quasi-judicial Bodies 646
8. Negotiation and Conciliation 647
9. Other Control Procedures 647
10. The Types of Rules 647
11. Problems of Co-ordination: Regional Bodies 648
12. Certain Other Issues: Inspection Procedures 649
PART Ⅻ TRANSMISSION OF RIGHTS AND DUTIES 651
ⅩⅩⅧ. STATE SUCCESSION 651
1. State Succession as a Category 651
2. The Pre-emption of Problems by Treaty, Acquiescence, and Estoppel 652
3. Territorial Sovereignty and Domestic Juriediction 653
4. The Interaction of Rules of Law 658
5. Particular Legal Issues 658
6. Relevance of the Political Form of Territorial Change 671
7. Doctrine of Reversion 672
ⅩⅩⅨ. OTHER CASES OF TRANSMISSION OF RIGHTS AND DUTIES 674
1. Succession between International Organizations 674
2. Cases of Ageney 675
3. Assignment 676
PART Ⅻ INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS AND TRIBUNALS 677
ⅩⅩⅩ. INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS 677
1. Introductory 677
2. Legal Personality 677
3. Performance of Acts in the Law 681
4. Interpretation of the Constituent Instrument: Inherent and Implied Powers 686
5. Relations with Member States 688
6. The Functional Concept of Membership 690
7. Relations with States not Members 691
8. Relations between Organizations 692
9. Relation to Municipal Law 694
10. Law-making by Organizations 695
11. Control of Acts of Organizations 698
ⅩⅩⅪ. THE JUDICIAL SETTLEMENT OF INTERNA-TIONAL DISPUTES 705
1. Peaceful Settlement in General 705
2. Arbitration 706
3. Permanent Court of Arbitration 707
4. Codes of Arbitral Procedure 708
5. Judicial Settlement 709
6. The Permanent Court of International Justice and the Inter-national Court of Justice 712
7. Organization of the Court 713
8. Jurisdiction of the Court in Contentious Cases 716
9. Heads of Jurisdiction 719
10. The Advisory Jurisdiction of the Court 728
11. An Evaluation of the Court 730
INDEX 735