PartⅠ Introduction 1
1 Introduction 3
Meaning, Cognition and the Domain of Anthropological Linguistics 3
The Nature of Meaning 5
Meaning as Mental Representation 7
Meaning as Enaction 8
Social Phenomena 11
Culture as Embodied Practice 12
Preface by Halliday F 13
王宗炎序 F 14
Meaning in Cultural Practice-Symbolic Anthropology 15
Preface by Chomsky F 17
Culture as Cognition-Cognitive Anthropology 18
Cultural Practices and Social Differentiation 21
沈家煊序 F 24
The Idea of Linguistic Practices 24
The Nature of the Linguistic Sign: Icon, Index, Symbol 25
导读 F 27
Language as Signs and their Combinations 27
Grammar: The Computational System 29
Grammar: The Conceptual System 33
Preface F 36
Grammatical Categories 37
Acknowledgments F 38
Summary 40
Further Reading 40
PartⅡ The Evolution of Language 41
2 The Evolution of Language 43
Evolution as Natural Drift 43
Human Evolution: From Apes to Modern Humans 48
Australopithecines 50
Homo Habilis 52
Homo Erectus 54
Homo Sapiens 55
Increase in Brain Size 59
Language versus Speech 61
Lateralization and the Anatomical Bases of Language 61
Precursors of Language in Apes 63
The Development of Human Language 66
The Social Dimension to Language Evolution 68
The Evolution of Language in the Genus Homo 70
Summary 74
Epilog: Are Great Apes Capable of Language? 75
Further Reading 78
PartⅢ Universalism: Innate Constraints on Mind 79
Plato s Cave and the Theory of Universal Innate Ideas 81
3 Mind, Universals, and the Sensible World 81
The Kantian Synthesis 83
The Kantian Legacy 84
The Use of Representations in Cognitive Studies 86
Universals and Representations 87
Challenges to Representations: Connectionism and Enactionism 89
Summary 90
Further Reading 91
4 Structuralism 92
Saussure 92
Structuralism Illustrated: The Phoneme 93
Contributions of the Prague School 94
Structuralism and the Meaning of the Sign 96
Levi-Strauss s Innovations 98
An Example of Structural Analysis in Anthropology: Taboo in English 101
Further Reading 105
Summary 105
5 Cognitive Anthropology 106
The Intellectual Background of Cognitive Anthropology 106
Componential Analysis 108
Taxonomy 112
Universalist Trends in Cognitive Anthropology 114
Biological Taxonomies: Berlin s Approach to Ethnobiological Classification 115
Classification and Hidden Nature 120
Challenges to Berlin s Approach 122
Taxonomies in Other Domains? 124
Partonomy 125
Scripts and Cultural Practices 126
Summary 129
Further Reading 130
The Terms of Kinship Analysis 131
6 Kinship 131
Universals of Kinship 132
An Analysis of Watam Consanguineal Kin Terms 134
Lounsbury s Reduction Rules and Universals of Kinship 139
Crow-type Kinship Systems 141
Trobriand Kinship and the Skewing Rule 143
Universals and Variation in Kinship Systems 145
Relativist Responses to Universalist Approaches to Kinship 146
Summary 148
Further Reading 149
7 Color 150
The Neurophysiology of Color 150
Color Categorization 152
Types of Basic Color Terminologies 154
Universal Constraints on Basic Color Terminologies 159
Relativist Responses to Proposed Universals of Color Terminologies 160
Summary 164
Further Reading 165
PartⅣ Relativism: Cultural and Linguistic Constraints on Mind 167
8 On Relativist Understanding 169
The Idea of Relativism 169
The Problem of Translation 170
The Bridgehead of Understanding 171
Hermeneutics 173
Hermeneutics and Translation of Grammatical Categories 175
Relativism and Enactionism 176
Summary 177
Further Reading 178
9 Models and Metaphors 179
Models for Understanding 179
Metaphor as Constitutive of Understanding 182
Metaphor and Embodied Experience 183
The Conduit Metaphor and the Understanding of Meaning 185
Cultural Models and Metaphors: Emotions in American English 187
Models, Metaphors, and Grammatical Categories 188
Summary 191
Further Reading 191
10 Linguistic Relativity and the Boasian Tradition 192
The Boasian Tradition and its European Precursors 192
Boas 194
Sapir 196
Whorf 199
Whorf s Theory of Cognitive Appropriation 203
Neo-Whorfianism: The Empirical Studies of Lucy 208
Silverstein s Reformulation 211
Summary 213
Further Reading 214
11 Space 215
Proposed Universals of Space 215
Relativities in Spatial Conceptualization: The Case of Guugu-Yimidhirr 216
Testing for Relativites of Understanding 218
Another Example: Tzeltal of Mexico 222
Topological Propertices of Space 225
Relativities of Spatial Conception and Language Acquisition 227
Summary 228
Further Reading 229
12 Classifiers 230
Ontological Relativity 230
The Nature of Classifiers 232
Typology of Classifier Systems 235
Cognitive Consequences of Ontological Relativity 239
Universal Ontology versus Ontological Relativity 241
Summary 245
Further Reading 245
PartⅤ The Ethnography of Speaking 247
13 Speaking as a Culturally Constructed Act: A Few Examples 249
Communicative Relativity 249
Language in Litigation: The Courtroom 250
Talking Among Australian Aboriginals 252
Language and Disputes Among the Ilongot of the Philippines 254
Greetings: Australo-American and African Style 256
Summary 259
Further Reading 259
14 Politeness, Face, and the Linguistic Construction of Personhood 260
Linguistic Practices, Person and Habitus 260
The Construction of Personhood 261
Self versus Person 262
Local Conceptions of Personhood 264
The Linguistic Construction of Personhood and the Concept of Face 269
Politeness, and Positive and Negative Face 270
Crosscultural Differences in Politeness and Face 273
The Cooperative Principle and its Conversational Maxims 275
Crosscultural Variation of the Cooperative Principle: The Malagasy Case 278
The Cooperative Principle and the Determination of Meaning 280
Local Constructions of Personhood and Linguistic Relativity 282
Summary 284
Further Reading 285
15 Language and Gender 286
The Cultural Construction of Gender 286
Gender Differences in Linguistic Practices: Three Cultures 289
Male Linguistic Dominance in American English 293
The Two Cultures Model 296
Gender Deixis 299
Gender Markers 301
Women and Linguistic Conservatism 302
Women and Politeness 304
Summary 305
Further Reading 306
16 Language and Social Position 307
Social Inequality: Class, Power, and Prestige 307
Social Roles 310
Other Types of Social Structure 311
Social Deixis: The T/V Phenomenon 313
Social Deixis and Honorifics: Fapanese 318
Social Deixis and Honorifics: Favanese 323
Social Deixis in Egalitarian Societies: Age and Kinship Relations 326
Social Markers: Sociolinguistic Variables 328
Social Markers: Code Switching 333
Social Markers and Ethnicity 337
Summary 342
Further Reading 343
17 Language Socialization 345
The Acquisition of Communicative Competence: Three Cultures 345
Linguistic Socialization of Gender Roles 348
Linguistic Socialization of Status Roles 351
The Acquisition of Communicative Norms 354
Summary 357
Further Reading 358
18 Genre: Poetics, Ritual Languages, and Verbal Art 359
Genres and Framing 360
Intertextuality 360
The Poetic Function 362
Framing Devices: Lexical Shifts 364
Parallelism 366
Paralinguistic Features 370
Genres and Context 371
Intertextual Caps 372
Minimizing Intertextual Gaps 373
Maximizing Intertextual Gaps 375
Summary 377
Further Reading 378
PartⅥ Culture and Language Change 379
19 Contact Induced Language Change 381
Sources of Cultural Change 381
Linguistic Change 383
Types of Linguistic Change: Borrowing and Interference 384
Interference and Multilingualism 389
Linguistic Areas 391
Pidgin Langusages 392
Language Death 395
Summary 396
Further Reading 397
20 Standard Languages and Linguistic Engineering 398
The Concept of the Nation-State and the National Language 398
The Development of Standard English 400
The Fate of Dutch as a Standard language 403
Standard Languages in Norway 405
Building National Identities 406
Standard Languages and Elite Hegemony 408
Forging a Standard Language: The Case of Indonesian 410
Modernization in Language Standardization 413
The Westernization of Standard Thai 415
Summary 415
Further Reading 416
The Cognitive Consequences of Literacy 417
21 Literacy 417
Written Language as Decontextualized 420
Literacy as a Social Force 421
Cognitive Effects: Literacy versus Schooling 423
The Practice Approach to Literacy 424
The Oral / L iterate Continuum 425
Literacy, Genres, and Privilege 427
Literacy Practices in Three American Communities 429
Literacy Practices Among the Athabaskans of Canada 431
Literacy Practices Among the Gapun of New Guinea 432
Summary 433
Further Reading 434
References 435
Index 469
文库索引 496