Part 1 Preliminaries 1
1 Semantics in Linguistics 3
1．1 Introduction 3
1．2 Semantics and Semiotics 5
1．3 Three Challenges in Doing Semantics 6
1．4 Meeting the Challenges 7
1．5 Semantics in a Model of Grammar 9
1．5．1 Introduction 9
1．5．2 Word meaning and sentence meaning 10
1．6 Some Important Assumptions 11
1．6．1 Reference and sense 12
Preface by Halliday 12
1．6．2 Uuerances，sentences and propositions 13
王宗炎序 13
1．6．3 Literal and non-literal meaning 15
导读 16
1．6．4 Semantics and pragmatics 17
1．7 Summary 19
Further Reading 19
Exercises 20
Notes 21
2 Meaning，Thought and Reality 23
2．1 Introduction 23
2．2 Reference 25
2．2．1 Types of reference 25
2．2．2 Names 27
2．2．3 Nouns and noun phrases 28
2．3 Reference as a Theory of Meaning 30
2．4 Mental Representations 32
2．4．1 Introduction 32
2．4．2 Concepts 34
2．4．3 Necessary and sufficient conditions 35
2．4．4Prototypes 37
2．4．5Relations between concepts 38
2．4．6Acquiring concepts 40
2．5 Words，Concepts and Thinking 40
2．5．1 Linguistic relativity 41
2．5．2 The language of thought hypothesis 43
2．5．3 Thought and reality 44
List of Figures and Tables 45
2．6 Summary 46
Further Reading 47
Exercises 47
Preface 47
Notes 49
List of Abbreviations and Symbols 49
Part II Semantic Description 51
3 Word Meaning 53
3．1 Introduction 53
3．2 Words and Grammatical Categories 55
3．3 Words and Lexical Items 55
3．4 Problems and Pinning Down Word Meaning 59
3．5 Lexical Relations 63
3．5．1 Homonymy 63
3．5．2 Polysemy 64
3．5．3 Synonymy 65
3．5．4 Opposites（Antonymy） 66
3．5．5 Hyponymy 68
3．5．7 Member-collection 70
3．5．6 Meronymy 70
3．5．8 Portion-mass 71
3．6 Derivational Relations 71
3．6．1 Causative verbs 71
3．6．2 Agentive nouns 72
3．7 Summary 73
Further Reading 73
Exercises 74
Notes 76
4 Sentence Relations and Truth 79
4．1 Introduction 79
4．2 Logic and Truth 81
4．3 Necessary Truth，A Priori Truth and Analyticity 86
4．4 Entailment 90
4．5．1 Introduction 93
4．5 Presupposition 93
4．5．2 Two approaches to presupposition 94
4．5．3 Presupposition failure 96
4．5．4 Presupposition triggers 97
4．5．5 Presuppositions and context 99
4．5．6 Pragmatic theories of presupposition 101
Further Reading 102
Exercises 102
4．6 Summary 103
Notes 104
5 Sentence Semantics 1：Situations 106
5．1 Introduction 106
5．2 Classifying Situations 107
5．2．1 Introduction 107
5．2．2 Verbs and situation types 109
5．2．3 A system of situation types 113
5．2．4 Tense and aspect 114
5．2．5 Comparing aspect across languages 120
5．2．6Combining situation type and aspect 123
5．3 Modality and Evidentiality 125
5．3．1 Modality 125
5．3．2 Mood 128
5．3．3Evidentiality 131
5．4 Summary 133
Further Reading 133
Exercises 134
Notes 137
6 Sentence Semantics 2：Participants 139
6．1 Introduction：Classifying Participants 139
6．2 Thematic Roles 140
6．3 Grammatical Relations and Thematic Roles 145
6．4 Verbs and Thematic Role Grids 147
6．5 Problems with Thematic Roles 149
6．6 The Motivation for Identifying Thematic Roles 152
6．7 Voice 155
6．7．1 Passive voice 155
6．7．2 Comparing passive constructions across languages 159
6．7．3 Middle voice 161
6．8 Summary 165
Further Reading 165
Exercises 166
Notes 169
7 Context and Inference 172
7．1 Introduction 172
7．2．1 Spatial deixis 173
7．2 Deixis 173
7．2．3 Extensions of spatial deixis 177
7．2．2 Grammaticalization of context 177
7．2．4 Person deixis 178
7．2．5 Social deixis 179
7．3 Reference and Context 180
7．4 Knowledge as Context 181
7．4．1 Discourse as context 182
7．4．2 Background knowledge as context 183
7．4．3 Mutual knowledge 185
7．4．4 Giving background knowledge to computers 186
7．5 Information Structure 187
7．6 Inference 191
7．7 Conversational Implicature 192
7．8 Summary 196
Exercises 197
Further Reading 197
Notes 202
8 Functions of Language：Speech as Action 203
8．1 Introduction 203
8．2 Austin s Speech Act Theory 206
8．2．1 Introduction 206
8．2．2 Evaluating performative utterances 208
8．2．3 Explicit and implicit performatives 209
8．2．4 Statements as performatives 210
8．2．5 Three facets of a speech act 211
8．3 Categorizing Speech Acts 212
8．4 Indirect Speech Acts 214
8．4．1 Introduction 214
8．4．2 Understanding indirect speech acts 216
8．4．3 Indirect acts and politeness 218
8．5 Sentence Types 221
8．6 Summary 223
Further Reading 224
Exercises 224
Notes 225
Part III Theoretical Approaches 229
9 Meaning Components 231
9．1 Introduction 231
9．2 Lexical Relations in CA 232
9．2．1 Binary features 233
9．2．2 Redundancy rules 233
9．3 Katz s Semantic Theory 234
9．3．1 Introduction 234
9．3．3 Projection rules 235
9．3．2 The Katzian dictionary 235
9．4 Grammatical Rules and Semantic Components 238
9．4．1 The Methodology 238
9．4．2 Thematic roles and linking rules 241
9．5 Components and Conflation Patterns 245
9．6 Jackendoff s Conceptual Structure 249
9．6．1 Introduction 249
9．6．2The semantic components 250
9．6．3 Localist semantic fields 251
9．6．4 Complex events and states 253
9．6．5 THINGS：Semantic classes of nominals 254
9．6．6 Cross-category generalizations 255
9．6．7 Processes of semantic combination 256
9．7 Problems with Components of Meaning 259
Further Reading 261
9．8 Summary 261
Exercises 262
Notes 266
10 Formal Semantics 268
10．1 Introduction 268
10．2Model-Theoretical Semantics 271
10．3 Translating English into a Logical Metalanguage 271
10．3．1 Introduction 271
10．3．2 Simple statements in predicate logic 272
10．3．3 Quantifiers in predicate logic 274
10．3．4 Some advantages of predicate logic translation 277
10．4 The Semantics of the Logical Metalanguage 279
10．4．1 Introduction 279
10．4．2 The semantic interpretation of predicate logic symbols 279
10．4．3 The domain 280
10．4．4 The denotation assignment function 281
10．5 Checking the Truth Value of Sentences 282
10．5．1 Evaluating a simple statement 282
10．5．2 Evaluating a compound sentence with ∧‘and’ 283
10．5．3 Evaluating sentences with the quantifiers ( and ( 284
10．6 Intensionality 286
10．6．1 Introduction 286
10．6．2 Modality 287
10．6．3 Tense and aspect 289
10．7 Word Meaning：Meaning Postulates 291
10．8 Summary 293
Further Reading 294
Exercises 294
Notes 297
11．1 Introduction 299
11 Cognitive Semantics 299
11．2 Metaphor 302
11．2．1 Introduction 302
11．2．2 Metaphor in cognitive semantics 304
11．2．3Features of metaphor 305
11．2．4 The influence of metaphor 307
11．3 Image Schemas 308
11．3．1 Containment schema 308
11．3．2 Path schema 310
11．3．3 Force schemas 311
11．4 Polysemy 312
11．4．1 Prepositions 312
11．4．2 Modal verbs 317
11．5 Mental Spaces 319
11．5．1 Connections between spaces 320
11．5．2 Referential opacity 322
11．5．3 Presupposition 326
11．5．4 Section Summary 327
11．6 Construing a Scene 328
11．6．1 Perspective 328
11．6．2 Profiling 329
11．6．3 Scanning 331
11．7 Summary 331
Further Reading 332
Exercises 332
Notes 335
Peferences 337
Index 354
文库索引 361