Contents 1
Preface 1
PART Ⅰ DESIGN METHOD AND EXAMPLES 1
Introduction 1
1.1 Historical background 3
1.2 The present situation 3
1.3 Principles of diaphragm action 6
1.4 Types of building suitable for stressed skin design 7
1.7 Necessary conditions for stressed skin action 8
1.6 Suitable fasteners for stressed skin design 8
1.5 Suitable cladding for stressed skin action 8
1.8 Loading and load factors 10
1.9 Economic advantages of stressed skin design 10
1.10 Other types of stressed skin structure 12
The basic shear panel 17
2.1 Basic arrangements and definitions 17
2.2 Types of diaphragm 17
2.3 Components of an individual panel 17
2.4 Determination of flexibility and strength 21
2.5 Fastener characteristics 21
2.7 Expressions for diaphragm strength(cantilever panel,sheeting perpendicular to span) 24
2.6 Principles and assumptions in design expressions 24
2.8 Expressions for diaphragm flexibility(cantilever panel,sheeting perpendicular to span) 33
2.9 Modification to design expressions for sheeting spanning parallel to span of diaphragm 38
2.10 Welded diaphragms 40
2.11 Aluminium diaphra 41
2.12 Effect ofbonded insulat 42
2.13 Diaphragms in the vertical plane 42
Design of panel assembli 43
3.1 Assemblies of panels to form a complete diaphragm 43
3.3 Design expressions for complete diaphrag 45
3.2 Roofs of irregular plan 45
3.4 Modifications to design expressions for sheeting spanning parallel to span of diaphragm 49
3.5 Otherdesign criteria 50
Interaction of panels and stiff 53
4.1 Introduction 53
4.2 Manual elastic analysis of clad structures 54
4.3 Computer analysis of clad structures 59
4.4 Manual plastic analysis of clad structures 60
4.5 Plastic analysis of clad structures by computer 65
4.6 The danger of ignoring stressed skin action in conventional construction 65
Irregular diaphragms 69
5.1 Introduction 69
5.2 Finite element analysis of diaphragms 70
5.3 Simplified computer analysis 76
5.4 Design by test 86
5.5 Diaphragms with openi 89
5.6 Diaphragms subject to in-plane point loads 93
Design tables for steel diaphrag 96
6.1 Introduction 96
6.2 Arrangements of diaphragms 96
6.3 Design expressions 97
6.4 Practical considerations in the preparation of design tables 98
6.5 Parameters for table construction 100
6.7 Approximate treatment of openings 102
6.6 Design tables 102
6.8 Cantilevered diaphragms 105
Design examples 106
7.1 Cantilevered diaphragm fastened on four sides,sheeting perpendicular to span of diaphragm 106
7.2 Welded cantilever diaphragm fastened on four sides,sheeting parallel to span of diaphragm 110
7.3 Flat-roofed building with pinned frames,sheeting spanning perpendicular to span of diaphragm(including the effect of significant openings) 114
7.4 Flat roofed building with sheeting spanning parallel to span of diaphragm(with both pinned and rigid-jointed frames) 124
7.5 Pitched roof structure subject to vertical load 131
7.6 Further examples of diaphragm calculations 142
7.7 Folded plate roof 143
8.2 SEAC Mark 3 Building System 152
Examples of actual bu ildings 152
8.1 Introduction 152
8.3 CLASP Mark 5 Building System 154
8.4 New Covent Garden fruit and vegetable market 156
8.5 Tablet factory at Beeston 157
8.6 Industrial warehouses at Queen's Drive,Nottingham 159
8.7 Stuttgarter Neckarstadion-main stand 160
Summary of design expressions,tables of factors and symbols 162
9.1 Symbols required for diaphragm strength and flexibility 162
9.2 Notes on symbols 164
9.3 Design expressions,cantilever diaphragm,sheeting perpendicu 165
9.4 Design expressions,cantilever diaphragm,sheeting parallel 167
9.5 Design expressions,diaphragm beam,sheeting perpendicular 168
9.6 Design expressions,diaphragm beam,sheeting parallel 170
9.7 Notes on design expressions for diaphragm strength and flexibility 172
9.8 Design aids and tables of factors 200
9.9 Design tables for diaphragms 200
9.10 Design expressions for an element of a folded plate roof 201
PART Ⅱ THEORY,TESTS AND ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS 207
Derivation of the design expressions for the basic shear panel 207
10.2 Sheet to purlin fastener forces and consequent flexibility 207
10.3 Seam strength and flexibility 211
10.4 Strength and flexibility in end sub-panels 215
10.5 The factorsβ1 andβ2 217
10.6 Flexibility due to profile distortion 218
10.7 Flexibility with fasteners in alternate troughs 228
10.8 Profile distortion in arc and tangent sheeting 232
10.9 Influence of sheet end laps and alternative fastener arrangements on profile distortion 236
10.10 Influence of bonded insulation 237
10.11 Flexibility due to shear strain in the sheeting 237
10.12 Flexibility due to axial strain in the edge members 238
10.13 Shear buckling of diaphragms 238
10.14 Comparisons with finite element and test results 242
Design expressions for panel assemblies 248
11.1 Introduction 248
11.2 Flexibility due to movement at the gables and intermediate rafters 249
11.3 Flexibility dueto axial strain in the edge members 251
11.4 Profile distortion with the sheeting spanning parallel to the span of the diaphragm 252
12.2 Reduction factors for frame moments 254
Interaction of panels and stiff frames 254
12.1 Introduction 254
12.3 Reduction factors for one frame only loaded 258
12.4 An alternative general solution for reduction factors 261
12.5 Tests on a semi-full size pitched roof portal frame structure 261
12.6 Full-scale tests on an actual structure 267
12.7 Tests on a rectangular portal frame building 268
12.8 Full-scale laboratory tests on a pitched roof portal building 276
12.9 Conclusions from large-scale testing 286
Fasteners for Stressed skin structures 288
13.1 Introduction 288
13.2 Fasteners in shear-test procedures and failure modes 289
13.3 Design expressions for fasteners in shear 300
13.4 Fasteners in tension-test procedures and failure modes 307
13.5 Influence of repeated loading on fastener performance 312
13.6 Combined loading of fasteners 315
13.7 Corrosion of fasteners 315
13.8 Material factors for fasteners 316
Diaphragms with openings 317
14.1 Introduction 317
14.2 Tests on diaphragms containing openings 318
14.3 Finite element analysis 324
14.4 Approximate analysis of diaphragms with openings 324
14.5 Comparison of theoretical and experimental results 326
14.6 Conclusions from test results and analysis 332
14.7 Design expressions for local forces near openings 332
14.8 Application of the design procedure to the tested diaphrag 335
14.9 Systematic investigation of diaphragms with openings 335
14.10 Practical considerations 338
Light gauge steel folded plate roofs 339
15.1 Introduction 339
15.2 Design of folded plate roofs 342
15.3 Comparison of theory with finite element analysis 356
15.4 Tests on full-scale plate elements(first series E1-E8) 357
15.5 Tests on full-scale plate elements(second series E9-E17) 362
15.6 Full-scale testing of a hipped roof structure 366
15.7 Full-scale testing of a folded plate roof 371
15.8 Design charts for folded plate roofs 381
15.9 An alternative form for the basic folded plate structure 384
15.10 Alternative shapes for folded plate and related structures 385
15.11 Practical considerations in conventional folded plate design 386
15.12 Conclusions 388
Light gauge steel shells 389
16.1 Introduction 389
16.2 Basic form of the hyperbolic paraboloid roof 391
16.3 Analysis and design of hyperbolic paraboloid roofs 391
16.4 Light gauge steel hyperbolic paraboloid roofs in practice 393
16.5 Analysis and design of cylindrical shell roofs 394
16.6 Cylindrical shell roofs in practice 395
The use of diaphragm action to stabilise rafters and to replace bracing at the gable and eaves 397
17.1 Requirements for the lateral support of beams 397
17.2 Bracing requirements based on stiffness 399
17.3 Diaphragm bracing to end gabl 400
17.4 Gable bracing when sheeting spans parallel to the length of the buildi 403
17.5 Use of diaphragm action as eaves braci 403
18.1 Introducti 405
18.2 Diaphragm action of floo 405
Diaphragms in multi-storey buildings 405
18.3 Diaphragm action of walls and partitio 407
18.4 Analysis and design of infilled fram 408
18.5 Case study of 11-storey fra 410
18.6 Economy of frames with profiled steel infil 411
19.1 Introducti 413
19.2 Economi 413
Other considerations 413
19.3 Corrosi 414
19.4 Divided responsibility 415
19.5 Construction and the provision of wind braci 415
19.6 Extensions and changes of occupanc 416
19.7 Maintenan 416
19.8 Site supervisi 417
Complete bibliography on the stressed skin action of light gauge metal cladding 421
20.1 Shear panels and their use to stabilise pin-jointed structur 421
PART Ⅲ BIBLIOGRAPHY 421
20.2 Interaction of steel sheet cladding and rigid-jointed steel fra 428
20.3 Light gauge steel folded plate structures 431
20.4 Light gauge steel hyperbolic paraboloi 432
20.5 Light gauge steel cylindrical shel 434
20.6 Fasteners for light gauge steel diaphrag 434
20.7 Diaphragms of aluminium or other materia 436
10.1 Introduction 2070