PART Ⅰ THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND NAPOLEON 1
CHAPTER Ⅰ MODERN EUROPE 1
Unity of European civilisation 1
The State system of Europe，Balance of Power 2
France at the end of the eighteenth century 3
The House of Austria 5
The States of Germany 7
Russia 8
The first partition of Poland(1772) 9
The French Philosophers－Voltaire，Montesquieu，Rousseau 10
The Physiocrats 12
CHAPTER Ⅱ THE FRENCH REVOLUTION IN PEACE 13
Louis XVI 13
Turgot 14
Necker 15
Financial chaos 16
Calonne，The States-General 17
The National Assembly，Siéyès 19
The King＇s surrender，The three forces，Court，Assembly，People 20
Fall of the Bastille(14 July 1789) 21
The‘Bread＇march on Versailles(October 5-6) 22
The‘Emigration，＇The‘Rights of Man＇(August) 23
The Constitutional Debates 25
The Constitution of 1791 25
Ecclesiastical legislation 26
The flight to Varennes 28
Massacre of the Champ de Mars(17 July 1791) 29
CHAPTER Ⅲ THE REVOLUTION AT WAR 29
Parties in the Legislative Assembly 29
Origins of the War 30
The Polish Question 32
France and the Empire，Convention of Pillnitz(27 August 1791) 33
The Girondist Ministry and War(20 April 1792) 34
20 June 1792 in Paris 35
The rise of the Jacobins，The Fall of Monarchy(10 August 1792) 36
The‘September Massacres，＇ 38
Battle of Valmy(20 September 1792)，Execution of Louis XVI(21 January 1793) 39
European coalition against France 40
Defeat and treason of Dumouriez，The War in La Vendée 41
The Committee of Public Safety 42
Fall of the Girondists 43
Danton and Robespierre 44
The Revolutionary Tribunal 45
The Vendean War 46
Carnot and the new Warfare 47
The Second Partition of Poland(1793)，French Victories 48
Divisions in the Jacobin party，The Commune 49
The Reforms of 1793 50
Fall of Hébertists and Dantonists 51
Fall and Execution of Danton 52
Law of Prairial(10 June 1794)，Robespierre＇s speech in the Convention(26 July 1794) 53
His arrest and death(28 July) 54
The end of the Terror，the Risings of Germinal and Prairial，1795 55
The Constitution of the Year Three 56
The Rising of Vendémiaire(October 1795)，Quiberon Bay(1795) 57
Third Partition of Poland(1795)，Peace of Basel between Prussia and France(5 April 1795) 58
CHAPTER Ⅳ THE RISE OF NAPOLEON TO POWER 59
Napoleon＇s early career 60
Italy in 1796 61
Napoleon＇s methods 62
French victories at Lodi and Rivoli 63
Peace of Campo Formio(17 Octobe 1797) 64
Napoleon＇s settlement of Italy 65
The Direc-tory 66
The Coup d＇état of Fructidor 67
French Expedition to Egypt，The Battle of the Pyramids(21 July 1798)，and of the Nile(1 August 1798) 68
Italy and Holland(1798) 69
Switzerland and Naples 70
Russia enters the War(December 1798) 71
French defeats(1799) 72
The Directory and Napoleon 73
The Revolution of Brumaire(9-11 November 1799) 74
The Consulate 75
CHAPTER Ⅴ NAPOLEON，EMPEROR AND STATESMAN 76
Austria and Great Britain continue the War 76
Battles of Marengo(14 June 1800)and Hohenlinden(2 December 1800)，Peace of Luné-ville(9 February 1801) 77
The Peace of Amiens(27 March 1802) 78
Results of the Peace of Amiens 79
Germany of in confusion，The Congress of Rasttat(December 1797) 80
The first Napoleonic settle-ment of Germany 81
Napoleon as First Consul 82
Napoleon，Emperor of the French(18 May 1804) 84
The Concordat 85
The Code Napoléon 86
France under Napoleon 89
CHAPTER Ⅵ THE DEFEAT OF THE GOVERNMENTS OF EUROPE 92
The Balance of Power 92
The Cisalpine Republic 93
San Domingo and India 94
Malta and the rupture with England 95
The Grand Alliance 96
Battle of Trafalgar(21 October 1805) 98
Napoleon and Prussia 99
Ulm and Austerlitz 100
The Confederation of the Rhine(1806) 101
End of the Holy Roman Empire(6 August 1806) 102
Jena(14 October 1806)and Eylau(February 1807) 103
The Treaty of Tilsit(7 July 1807) 104
The zenith of Napoleon＇s power 105
CHAPTER Ⅶ THE RISE OF THE NEW EUROPE 105
The Berlin Decrees 106
The‘Continental System＇ 107
French annexation of Holland 108
The revival of Prussia 109
Napoleon＇s War against Spain 112
The Erfurt Conference 117
Austria renews War(1809) 118
Signs of the future 119
CHAPTER Ⅷ THE CATASTROPHE OF NAPOLEON 119
Sweden and Bernadotte 120
Austria，Russia and Napoleon 121
The‘Grand Army＇invades Russia(June 1812) 122
The Retreat from Moscow 123
The national rising in Prussia 124
Metternich＇s peace proposals 125
The Battles of Dresden(August 1813)and Leipzig(October 1813) 126
The invasion of France(1814) 127
Napoleon abdicates(6 April 1814) 128
The return of the Bourbons 129
The‘Hundred Days＇ 130
Waterloo(18 June 1815) 131
PART Ⅱ FROM INTERNATIONAL GOVERNMENT TO REVOLUTION 1814-48 133
CHAPTER Ⅸ THE FAILURE OF INTERNATIONAL GOVERNMENT(1814-25) 133
Treaty of Chaumont(9 March 1814) 134
1st Treaty of Paris(30 May 1814) 135
2nd Treaty of Paris(20 November 1815) 136
Treaty of Vienna(9 June 1815) 137
Holy Alliance(26 September 1815)and Quadruple Alliance(20 November 1815) 139
The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle(1818) 140
Castlereagh＇s declaration of British policy(5 May 1820) 141
The Congress of Troppau(1820) 142
Canning，The Congress of Verona(1822) 143
Failure of the Congress system 144
CHAPTER Ⅹ AUTOCRACY，CONSTITUTIONALISM AND REVOLUTION(1815-48) 145
The Germanic Federation，The Carlsbad Decrees(1819) 145
Reform in Prussia 146
The Zollverein 147
Frederick William IV，France under the restored Bourbons 149
Louis Philippe and the Orleanist Monarchy 151
The Belgian revolt 152
Palmerston and Belgium，Spain and Portugal 154
Weakness of the Orleans Monarchy 156
Revolution in France(February 1848) 157
Revolution in Poland 158
Italy－attempts at revolt 159
General tendencies in the period 162
PART Ⅲ FRENCH，GERMAN AND RUSSIAN IMPERIALISM 165
CHAPTER Ⅺ THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1848 AND THE ESTABLISH-MENT OF THE EMPIRE 165
Paris and the Revolution 165
Saint-Simon 166
Louis-Blanc 167
Socialist revolt 168
Louis Napoleon 169
Work as President 170
Coup d＇état(2 December 1851) 172
The Second Empire 173
CHAPTER Ⅻ THE REVOLUTION OF 1848-49 IN GERMANY，IN THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE AND IN HUNGARY 176
Different forms assumed by the Revolution 176
Germany 178
Austria，Hungary and Prussia 179
The National German Assembly 180
Windischgratz suppresses Czech revolution in Prague，Jellacic，Ban of Croatia，attacks Hungary 181
Failure of Revolution in Austria，Suppression of Liberalism in Prussia 182
Hungary，Kossuth and Gorgei，The re-conquest of Budapest 183
Russian intervention 184
Hungary＇s surrender，Kossuth＇s flight 185
CHAPTER ⅩⅢ REACTION IN GERMANY，AUSTRIA AND HUNGARY 186
The National Assembly of Germany offers the crown to Frederick William of Prussia，His refusal(3 April 1849)and the end of the Assembly(September 1849) 187
Austria humiliates Prussia at Olmütz(28 November 1850) 188
Reactionary policy in Austria 189
Permanent results of the Revolutions 190
CHAPTER ⅪⅤ REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS IN ITALY 191
Pius IX，the Liberal Pope 192
Pius grants a Constitution(March 1848) 194
Rebellion in Sicily，and grant of a constitution(February 1848)，and in Tuscany，(February 1848) 195
Charles-Albert，King of Sardinia 196
Success of anti-Austrian rising in Milan(23 March 1848)，Charles-Albert declares for a United Italy 197
Italian defeat at Custozza，(25 July) 198
Disorders and constitutions suppressed in Naples，Tuscany 199
Defeat of Charles-Albert at Novara(23 March 1849)，Victor Emmanuel maintains the Constitution of Piedmont 200
Garibaldi and Mazzini surrender Rome(30 June 1849，)Manin surrenders Venice(24 August 1849) 201
CHAPTER ⅩⅤ THE EASTERN QUESTION AND THE CRIMEAN WAR 202
Section Ⅰ－The Near Eastern Question，1804-53 202
The Turks，the Great Powers and the Balkan peoples 202
The Serb revolt(1804)，The Greek revolt(1820) 203
The Battle of Navarino(August 1827)，Russo-Turkish War(1828-29)，The Treaty of Adrianople(14 September 1829) 204
Independence of Greece(1832)，Russian policy(1829-40) 205
Mehemet Ali attacks Turkey 206
Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi(8 July 1833)，The Turks attack Mehemet Ali(June 1839) 207
Palmerston＇s Convention of London(15 July 1840) 208
Mehemet Ali submits(25 November 1840)，The Straits Convention(13 July 1841) 209
Section Ⅱ－The Crimean War 210
The growing weakness of Turkey 210
Russia＇s religious claims，The Czar＇s proposals(January 1853) 212
The Holy Places，Lord Stratford de Redcliffe 213
Russia in the Principalities，Turkey declares war on Russia(4 October 1853) 214
France and Britain declare war(27 March 1854)，The Four Points 215
The Siege of Sebastopol(Septem-ber 1854-September 1855) 216
The Vienna Conference(March-May 1855) 217
The Fall of Sebastopol 218
The Congress and Peace Treaty of Paris(30 March 1856)，Declaration on Maritime Law 219
Failure of Turkey to reform 220
Changes in the Balkans－Greece，Serbia，Montenegro and Rumania 220
CHAPTER ⅩⅥ THE RISORGIMENTO AND THE UNION OF ITALY 224
Nationality in Italy 224
Mazzini 226
Piedmont and the rise of Cavour 227
Cavour at the Congress of Paris 228
Cavour and Napoleon III 229
Austria attacks Piedmont(April 1859) 230
Napoleon III invades Italy 231
Battles of Magenta(4 June)and Solferino(24 June) 232
The Preliminaries of Villafranca(11 July) 233
Italian movements towards unity，French annexation of Nice and Savoy 234
Naples 235
Garibaldi 236
His conquest of Sicily(May 1860)，He enters Naples(7 September) 237
The Kingdom of Italy 238
CHAPTER ⅩⅦ THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE 239
Difficulties of Napoleon III 239
The Opposition 240
The Mexican adventure(1862-67) 241
The Parliamentary situation，Thiers and Ollivier 243
Military position of France 244
The Liberal Empire 245
The Roman Question 246
CHAPTER ⅩⅧ GERMANY TO THE SEVEN WEEKS＇WAR(1848-66) 246
Austria：The October Diploma(1860) 247
Prussia：Zollverein，King William I 247
Roon and Bismarck 249
Bismarck＇s early career 250
The Frankfort Conference，The Polish Insurrection(1863) 251
The Schleswig-Holstein Question 252
Austria and Prussia attack Den-mark 253
The Treaty of Vienna(30 October 1864) 254
Bismarck and Italy(1865) 255
Austro-Prussian friction 256
Bismarck and Napoleon III，The Frankfort Diet(June 1866) 257
CHAPTER ⅩⅨ THE DEFEAT OF AUSTRIA AND THE COMING OF THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR 258
Moltke and the Prussian Army 258
Austrians defeated at Sadowa(3 July 1866)，Italians defeated at Custozza(24 July) 260
The Treaty of Prague(23 August 1866) 261
Napoleon III＇s demands on the Rhine，Belgium and Luxemburg 262
The North German Confederation 264
Francis Joseph and Hungary 265
The Ausgleich(1867) 266
Spain under two Queens 267
The Hohenzollern candidature for the Spanish Crown 269
French policy，Bismarck and the Ems Telegram 270
CHAPTER ⅩⅩ THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR AND ITS EFFECTS 271
Moltke 271
French disasters(August 1870) 272
Sedan(1 September)，collapse of the Empire 273
Siege of Paris(30 September 1870-28 January 1871) 274
Gambetta＇s resistance，Bazaine surrenders Metz(27 October 1870) 275
Fall of Paris and armistice(28 January 1871) 276
Russia and the Black Sea clauses 277
The German Empire pro-claimed(18 January 1871) 278
The new German Constitution(1873) 279
The French Assembly at Versailles 280
The Treaty of Frankfort(10 May 1871) 281
CHAPTER ⅩⅪ THE FOUNDATION OF THE THIRD FRENCH REPUBLIC 281
The Commune 282
Thiers 283
Defeat of the Communards 284
The German indemnity paid 285
The Monarchists overthrow Thiers 286
The new French Constitution 287
Grévy succeeds MacMahon 289
The Boulangist movement 291
PART Ⅳ THE GREAT ALLIANCES AND THE BALANCE OF POWER 293
CHAPTER ⅩⅫ RUSSIA AND THE EASTERN QUESTION，1856-86 293
Lines of expansion for European Powers 293
Russia under Alexander II 294
Polish revolt(1863) 295
Pan-Slavism，Jan Kollár，Safarik 296
Pan-Slav Exhibition at St．Petersburg(1867) 297
Revolt in Bosnia，The Bulgarian Atrocities 298
Disraeli and Gladstone 299
The Constantinople Conference 300
The Russo-Turkish War(April 1877-March 1878)，The Treaty of San Stefano 301
Terms of the Treaty of San Stefano，The Balkan States－Bosnia，Herzegovina，Serbia，Montenegro and Bulgaria 302
Salisbury＇s Circular(1 April 1878)，Disraeli and Cyprus 303
The Congress of Berlin(13 June-13 July 1878) 304
Results of the Treaty of Berlin－reform in Asiatic Turkey，Armenia，Batum 305
Russia and Bulgaria 306
Union of the two Bulgarias，Significance of the Congress of Berlin 307
CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅢ THE GROWTH OF COLONISATION，OF TRADE，AND OF OVERSEAS EMPIRE，1815-92 308
Different forms of colonisation 308
British expansion 309
The French occupy Algiers 310
French Colonial policy 311
The French in North Africa 312
The Suez Canal，China 313
Russia in the Caucasus 314
Russia and Turkestan 315
Anglo-Russian rivalry in Central Asia，Russia is diverted to China 316
French occupation of Tunis(1881)，Anglo-French control in Egypt 317
German colonial enterprise，The Congo，The Conference of Berlin(October 1884-February 1885) 320
Results of Colonial development 321
CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅣ BISMARCK AND THE FORMATION OF THE TRIPLE AND DUAL ALLIANCES，1879-94 322
Bismarck＇s system 322
The Dreikaiserbund(1871-3)，The Austro-German Treaty(7 October 1879) 323
The Dreikaiserbund Treaty(18 June 1881) 324
Triple Alliance Treaty(20 May 1882) 325
The‘Re-insurance Treaty＇(18 June 1887) 326
The Bulgarian imbroglio 327
Bismarck＇s policy，his fall(1890) 328
The formation of the Dual Alliance(1891-93) 329
CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅤ THE ANGLO-JAPANESE ALLIANCE AND THE FRANCO-BRITISH ENTENTE，1895-1905 330
The Sino-Japanese War，Attitude of the Powers，The Kruger Telegram， 330
Germany seizes Kiao-Chau(November 1897)，The Other Powers seek compensation 331
Britain approaches Germany(1898)，Fashoda(1898) 332
1st Hague Peace Conference(May-July 1899)，The Boer War(October 1899) 333
Peace between England and Boers(May 1902)，Anglo-German Agreement on China(16 October 1900)Anglo-German negotiations 334
The Anglo-Japanese Alliance(30 January 1902) 335
The Venezuelan incident(1902)，The isolation of Germany 336
Janpan declares war on Russia(February 1904)，The Anglo-French Agreements signed(8 April 1904) 337
The secret clauses of the Entente，Germany and the Entente 338
Morocco，the Kaiser at Tangier(31 March 1905) 339
End of the Russo-Japanese war(5 September 1905)，Renewal of Anglo-Japanese Alliance(12 August 1905，Relations of the Powers in 1905 340
CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅥ THE STATES OF EUROPE BEFORE THE CATASTROPHE 341
The States of Europe in 1906 341
The‘Encirclement＇policy，Ententes and Alliances 342
Public opinion in Britain 343
Instability of France 344
Franco-German relations 345
Reaction and Revolution in Russia 345
Russian policy in the Near and Middle East，Italy＇s moderate policy 347
Italy and the Central Powers，Germany－the Kaiser， 348
The German Kaiser and his Ministers 349
The Baghdad Railway and the German Naval Programme 350
Austria-Hungary－racial problems 351
Germany＇s blank cheque 353
Sum-mary 354
CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅦ THE THREE CRISES－ALGECIRAS－BOSNIA－AGADIR－1906-11 354
The Algeciras Conference(1906) 355
Anglo-French naval and military conversations 356
The Treaty of Bjorko(25 July 1905) 357
The Anglo-Russian Agreements(31 August 1907) 358
The Powers and the Balkans 359
The‘Young Turk＇Revolution 360
The crises in Bulgaria and Bosnia(1908) 361
The Powers and the Austrian annexa-tion of Bosnia 362
Resentment of Serbia 363
Humiliation of Russia 364
Results of the Balkan Crisis 365
The Second Hague Peace Con-ference(June-October 1907) 366
Anglo-German naval rivalry 367
Anglo-German negotiations(1909-11) 368
France and Germany in Morocco 369
The Panther at Agadir 370
Lloyd George＇s Mansion House speech(21 July 1911)Results of Agadir 371
Italy and Tripoli 372
The Haldane Mission，The Neutrality formula 373
The Grey-Cambon letters(22 November 1912) 374
CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅧ FROM THE BALKAN LEAGUE TO THE WAR OF 1914 375
Genesis of the Balkan Wars 375
The Balkan League(1911-12)，Sazonov and the outbreak of War(8 October 1912) 376
Turkish defeats，The Armistics(3 December 1912) 377
Further victories of the Balkan League(March 1913) 378
Albania，the Treaty of London(30 May 1913)，Bulgaria attacks Serbia，The Treaty of Bucharest(10 August 1913) 379
Terms of the Treaty of Bucharest 380
Russian policy in Turkey，German reorganisation of the Turkish Army，The Straits question 381
Anglo-Russian naval conversations 382
Military effect of the Balkan Wars 383
German anxieties 384
Rumania and the Triple Alliance 385
Serbo-Croat unrest 386
Austria-Hungary and Serbia，Assassination of Franz Ferdinand 387
Germany＇s attitude 388
Mobilisation of the Powers 389
Attitude of France 390
Attitude of England 391
Grey and the French coast 392
British ultimatum(4 August 1914) 392
The Outbreak of War 394
PART Ⅴ THE WAR AND ITS AFTERMATH IN EUROPE AND ASIA，1914-23 395
CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅨ THE WAR，1914-18 395
Ⅰ．1914：The Russian offensive 395
The Battle of Tannenberg 397
Stalemate in the East 398
The West：The Schlieffen Plan(1905-12) 399
The German advance on Paris 400
Failure of the German plan 401
Joffre resumes the offensive，The Battle of the Marne 402
Stale-mate in the West 405
Causes of German defeat 406
Ⅱ．1915：Falkenhayn＇s plan 407
Mackensen＇s offensives in Poland and Serbia 408
British failure at the Dardanelles 409
Ⅲ．1916-17：Falkenhayn attacks Verdun 410
The Franco-British offensive on the Somme，Brussilov＇s Offensive in the east 411
Germans invade Rumania，Battle of Jutland 412
Germany decides on unrestricted submarine warfare 413
America enters the War 414
Mutiny in the French Army，British offensive at Passchendaele，The Mesopotamian campaign 416
Russian Revolution，Italian defeat at Caporetto 417
Lloyd George and Clemenceau in power 418
Ⅳ．1918：Ludendorff＇s plan for 1918 418
Allied Supreme War Council，German offensive 419
Foch and the German offensive 420
Ludendorff on the Lys and Chemin des Dames 421
Foch＇s plans for an offensive 422
Ludendorff＇s collapse，Franchet-Desperey＇s offensive at Salonica 423
Germany sues for peace 424
Causes of German defeat，The part of the United States in the War 425
CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅩ THE PARIS CONFERENCE AND THE TREATY WITH GER-MANY，1919 426
The‘Big Four＇ 426
The basis of the Peace Treaty，Wilson and the League 428
Mandates and League Organisation 429
The Rhineland 430
The Polish Frontier，Czechoslovakia 431
Disarmament 432
Division of the German colonies，The Penal Clauses 433
Reparations 434
The Reparation Commission 435
‘War Guilt，＇ 436
Signature of the Treaty 437
CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅪ NATION-MAKING IN THE NEW EUROPE 438
Ⅰ．Central Europe：Basis of the Treaties of St．Germain and Trianon 438
End of the Dual Monarchy，Czechoslovakia 439
Italian gains in the Tyrol 440
The new Yugoslavia，Rumania 441
Effect of the Treaty of Trianon on Central Europe 442
Ⅱ．The Baltic：Rise of the Baltic States 443
Poland and Russia 444
The Battle of Warsaw(10 August 1920)，Poland＇s eastern frontier 445
CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅫ WORLD SETTLEMENT AND NATION-MAKING IN THE NEAR，MIDDLE AND FAR EAST 446
Bulgaria and Greece 446
Treaty of Sèvres(10 August 1920)，Mustafa Kemal and the‘Angora Pact，＇ 447
King Constantine attacks Mustafa Kemal，Rout of the Greeks，Lloyd George and the Straits 448
Treaty of Lausanne(24 July 1923) 448
Mustafa Kemal and the new Turkey 449
Armenian massacres，The Republic of Erivan 450
Arabs and Turks，The Grand Sheriff of Mecca，Hussein＇s overture to England 451
The Arab revolt，Lawrence and the Arabs，Fall of Damascus(October 1918) 453
Syria，Palestine and Iraq 454
Hussein driven from Mecca，Ibn Saud，King of Arabia，Persia under Reza Shah 455
The Far East：Western influences in China，Japanese aggression against China，Japan＇s desire for economic expansion 456
England termi-nates Anglo-Japanese alliance(1921)，Japanese policy 457
PART Ⅵ THE GREAT POWERS OF EUROPE IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 459
CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅩⅢ MARXISM AND THE SOVIET UNION；ITALY AND GERMANY；BRITAIN AND FRANCE 459
Ⅰ．MARXISM，ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION：Hébert，Babeuf 459
French Secret Societies，Barbès and Blanqui 460
Marx and Engels 461
Communist Manifesto(1848) 462
The Revolution of 1848 463
Proudhon，The First International(1864) 464
Marx and Bakunin 465
The Paris Commune(1871) 466
The Second International(1889) 467
European Socialist Parties in 1914 468
Lenin，The Third International(1919) 469
Lenin and Trotsky，The Fourth International(1937) 470
Ⅱ．THE SOVIET UNION FROM THE REVOLUTION TO 1939：The Russian Revolution，The Petrograd Soviet，Lenin returns from exile to lead the New Government of the Soviets(February 1917)，Treaty of Brest-Litovsk(March 1918) 471
Civil War in Russia，Lenin＇s‘New Eco-nomic Policy，＇The Constitution of the U．S．S．R 472
Opposition eliminated，Trotsky，The‘Purges＇of 1936-37 473
The Russian Com-munist Party 474
Achievements of the U．S．S．R 475
Ⅲ．DICTATORSHIPS IN ITALY AND GERMANY：The Authoritarian State 476
Characteristics of the Dictatorships in Italy and Germany 477
Origins of the race theory，Gobineau and Houston Chamberlain 478
The effect of the first World War on individual freedom 479
Ⅳ．ITALY FROM THE RISORGIMENTO TO THE WAR OF 1914：The Italian Constitution 480
Economic depression，Deprétis and Crispi 481
Italian colonial ventures，Adowa(1 March 1896)，Disorders in Italy，Seizure of Tripoli(1911) 482
The War of 1914，Rout at Caporetto(1917) 483
Ⅴ．ITALY FROM GIOLITTI TO MUSSOLINI，1920-39：Seizure of Fiume，Giolitti 484
Fascist March on Rome(October 1922)，Fascist Party and Principles 485
Concordat with the Vatican(11 February 1929) 486
Constitution of Italy 487
Racial policy 488
Ⅵ．GERMANY FROM THE VERSAILLES TREATY TO HITLER，1919-33：Aftermath of war 488
Weimar Republic 489
Hindenburg President(1925) 490
Origins of Nazism，Mein Kampf 491
Anti-semitism，Hitler＇s economic programme 492
Rise of the Nazi Party 493
Hitler Chancellor(January 1933) 494
Ⅶ．HITLER：Suppression of opposition，Putsch of June 1934 494
Domestic policy，The Church and the Nazi State 495
Religious persecution，Persecution of Jews 495
The Totalitarian State 497
Ⅷ．GREAT BRITAIN AND FRANCE：Bury on freedom(1913) 497
Restrictions on freedom of opinion after 1914 498
Disadvantages of Parliamentary Government 499
France between the wars，Defects of the French Constitution 500
Rule by Decree，Croix de Feu and Front Populaire 501
Collapse of the Third Republic(10 July 1940) 502
Cabinet Government in England 503
Stability of British Common-wealth 504
CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅩⅣ CO-OPERATION AND CONFLICT，1920-39 504
Ⅰ．THE POWERS AND THE LEAGUE，1920-38：Early activities of the League，The Corfu Incident(1923) 505
The Locarno Agreements(1925) 506
The Kellogg Pact(1928)，Disarmament 507
Japan and Manchuria(1931-33)，Japan＇s withdrawal from the League(1933)，Sino-Japanese War(1937) 508
Failure of disarmament(1934)，Germany leaves the League(October 1933)，Franco-Soviet Pact(2 May 1935) 509
Italy＇s attack on Abyssinia，German re-occupation of Rhineland(7 March 1936)，and its effects 510
Spain 1930-36 511
Spanish Civil War(1936-39)，‘Non-intervention，＇ 512
Conference of Nyon(September 1937)，The League and the Spanish Civil War 513
Ⅱ．HILTER＇S DRIVE TO THE EAST，1938：Hitler＇s demand for Colonies，Neville Chamberlain and the Covenant 514
Anschluss(March 1938)，Anti-Comintern Pact，Rome-Berlin Axis 515
Encirclement of Czechoslovakia，Czech Frontiers of 1919 516
Sudeten Germans 517
Czech domestic policy，Treatment of minorities 518
Economic and political factors 519
Foreign policy of Benes(1919-33) 520
Crisis of May 1938 521
Sokol display in Prague(July 1938)，Sudeten threats of secession，Attitude of France and Russia 522
England and Czecho-slovakia，Frontier incidents，Hitler＇s demands 523
Four Power con-ference，Munich Agreement(September 29) 524
Aftermath of Munich 525
Ⅲ．FROM MUNICH TO THE WAR OF 1939：Anglo-German declaration(September 30) 525
Britain and Germany，The Colonial question 526
Italy＇s demands，Internal strife in France 527
Persecution of Jews in Germany，Destruction of Czechoslovakia 528
Its effects，Britain＇s pledge to Poland，Memel ceded to Germany 529
Italy seizes Albania，Roosevelt＇s appeal 530
Conscription in Britain，German-Polish tension 531
Russo-German Pact(23 August 1939) 533
Russia，France and Britain 533
Danzig，Final stage of Polish crisis 535
Outbreak of War 536
CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅩⅤ EUROPE AT WAR，1939-45 536
1939：Extent of the War and its influence on European State System 536
Campaign in Poland(September)，4th Partition of Poland(September 28) 538
Western Front 539
Baltic States，Russo-Finnish War(November) 540
1940：Norwegian campaign(April-June) 540
German invasion of Low Countries and France(10 May) 541
Battle of France，Italy enters the War(10 June)，Fall of Paris(14 June) 542
France sues for armistice，French Fleet，Terms of Franco-German and Franco-Italian armistices 543
War at sea(1939-40) 544
Battle of Britain 545
War in the Balkans(October 1940-May 1941) 546
1941：Near and Middle East，Malta 547
Battle for Egypt(September 1940-March 1941)，British conquest of East Africa(July 1940-November 1941)，Axis victories in N．Africa(March 1941-July 1942) 549
German attack on Russia(22 June)and rapid German advance(June-December) 550
1942：German armies reach the Volga and Don(August) 551
Battle of Stalingrad(November 1942-January 1943)，America and the war 553
Lease-Lend Act(11 March 1941)，America and Japan，Pearl Harbour(7 December 1941) 554
America and Japan enter the War，Allied disasters in the Far East 555
1943：North African Campaigns(October 1942-May 1943) 556
Mediterranean theatre，Invasion of Italy，Fall of Mussolini，Italian armistice(3 September 558
Italian campaign(September 1943-May 1945) 558
Russian Front(February 1943-April 1944)，Russian advance approaches Germany 560
Allied Air-offensive against Germany，1942-44，German‘V＇weapons 561
1944：Invasion of western Europe(6 June) 562
Battle of Falaise，Liberation of Paris(25 August)，Invasion of southern France(15 Liberation of Paris(25 August)，Invasion of southern France(15 August)，Liberation of Brussels(3 September) 563
Allies enter the Saar 564
The Eastern Front：Finnish Armistice(19 September)，Russian advance in Baltic countries 564
Allied victories in the Balkans 565
German Counter-offensive in the Ardennes(December) 565
1945：Crossing of the Rhine(7 March)，Final offensives from east，west and south，Capture of Berlin by Russians(2 May) 566
German capitulation(7 May) 567
Far East，1945-45：Offensive and Counter-offensive in Burma(February 1944-May 1945)，Re-conquest of Pacific islands 567
U．S．troops approach Japan，Capture of Iwojima(March 1945)and Okinawa(June 1945)，Air-offensive against Japan，Potsdam Declaration(26 July 1945)，Russia declares War on Japan(8 August)，Atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima(6 August)and Nagasaki(9 August)，Japanese capitulation(14 August) 568
CHAPTER ⅩⅩⅥ THE POLITICAL STATE OF EUROPE，1945-50 569
Political balance in Europe，The Atlantic Chater(August 1941) 569
Italy：drafting of the Italian peace treaty and its terms(10 February 1947) 570
Austria：Allied intentions to re-establish an independent Austria，Administration of Austria，Allied attempts and failure to draft a peace treaty 571
Germany：‘Unconditional surrender，＇ 572
Allied decisions on Germany＇s future，Partition into Zones 573
The Potsdam Agreement，Failure of Allied control machinery 574
The two German Republics 575
Eastern Europe：Treaties of Peace between the Allies and Hungary，Bulgaria and Rumania(10 February 1947)，Poland 575
Czechoslovakia，Yugoslavia，Finland 577
Western Europe：Marshall Aid Plan，The Atlantic Treaty(4 April 1949) 577
Fourth French Republic(24 December 1946)，Council of Europe 578
Far East：Japan deprived of her conquests，Victory of Communists in China 578
EPILOGUE 579
MOVEMENTS FOR PEACE IN THE NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CENTURIES：Ideas of Czar Alexander I，Castlereagh＇s idea of a Congress 579
Alexander and European Unity(1818)，The National ideal 580
Clarendon and mediation，Growth of the practice of arbitration，The Hague Conferences(1899 and 1907) 581
The League of Nations，and its failure 583
Plans for a new international organisation，Dum-barton Oaks Conferences(August-October 1944)，San Francisco Con-ference(April-June 1945)，United Nations Charter and agencies，The Charter and the Covenant 583
INDEX 587