PART A. INTRODUCTION 3
1. WHAT IS TRANSNATIONAL CRIME? 3
2. WHAT IS TRANSNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW? 13
PART B. CRIMES 27
3. PIRACY AND MARITIME SAFETY OFFENCES 27
4. SLAVE TRADING, HUMAN TRAFFICKING, AND MIGRANT SMUGGLING 36
5. DRUG TRAFFICKING 50
6. TERRORISM 62
7. TRANSNATIONAL ORGANIZED CRIME 75
8. CORRUPTION 88
9. MONEY LAUNDERING 100
10. EMERGING TRANSNATIONAL CRIMES 112
11. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TRANSNATIONAL CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS 125
PART C. ENFORCEMENT 135
12. JURISDICTION OVER TRANSNATIONAL CRIME 135
13. INTERNATIONAL LAW ENFORCEMENT COOPERATION 159
14. LAW ENFORCEMENT COOPERATION ON THE HIGH SEAS 176
15. LAW ENFORCEMENT COOPERATION THROUGH ANTI-MONEY LAUNDERING AND COUNTERING THE FINANCING OF TERRORISM 186
16. LEGAL ASSISTANCE 197
17. EXTRADITION OF TRANSNATIONAL CRIMINALS 214
18. ASSET RECOVERY 235
19. TRENDS IN TRANSNATIONAL CRIMINAL PROCEDURE 248
PART D. INSTITUTIONS, IMPLEMENTATION,AND COMPLIANCE 255
20. INSTITUTIONS 255
21. IMPLEMENTATION AND COMPLIANCE 261
PART E. CONCLUSION 275
22. TRANSNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW: SOME REFLECTIONS 275
Index 279
PART A. INTRODUCTION 3
1. WHAT IS TRANSNATIONAL CRIME? 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 The Nature of Transnational Crime 3
1.2.1 The meaning of 'transnational crime' 3
1.2.2 Characteristics and causes of transnational crime 4
1.2.3 Harms caused by transnational crime 7
1.3 Assessing and responding to transnational crime 8
1.3.1 Global cooperation: an unavoidable response to a global threat? 8
1.3.2 The scale of transnational crime 9
1.3.3 Threat identification and pathways to the development of a policy response 9
1.3.4 The nature of the policy-making process 11
2. WHAT IS TRANSNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW? 13
2.1 The transnationality of crime and the transnationalization of criminal law 13
2.2 The horizontal and vertical nature of transnational criminal law 13
2.2.1 The role of the suppression conventions 13
2.2.2 Transnational crimes and penalties 14
2.2.3 Provisions for procedural cooperation 16
2.2.4 The subjects of transnational criminal law 16
2.3 The moral and political roots of transnational criminal law 17
2.4 The distinction from international criminal law stricto sensu 18
2.5 The systems aims and values 20
2.5.1 Effective suppression 20
2.5.2 Preservation of sovereignty 20
2.5.3 Legality, legitimacy, and transparency 20
2.5.4 Protection of human rights? 21
2.6 Conclusion 22
PART B. CRIMES 27
3. PIRACY AND MARITIME SAFETY OFFENCES 27
3.1 Introduction 27
3.2 The nature of piracy 27
3.3 Piracy: international or transnational crime? 28
3.4 The definition of the crime of piracy in custom and early state practice 29
3.5 Codification in the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea 29
3.6 The elements of the crime of piracy 30
3.6.1 Violence, detention, or depredation 30
3.6.2 The limitation to acts for private ends 30
3.6.3 The 'two ship' requirement 31
3.6.4 The limitation to the high seas 31
3.6.5 The key weakness of the UNCLOS definition 32
3.7 The maritime safety offences 33
3.8 Punishment of piracy and SUA offences 34
3.9 Problems with the substantive law exposed by the situation off Somalia 35
3.10 Conclusion 35
4. SLAVE TRADING, HUMAN TRAFFICKING, AND MIGRANT SMUGGLING 36
4.1 Introduction 36
4.2 Slave trading 36
4.2.1 Enslavement and slave trading 36
4.2.2 Suppression under international law 36
4.3 Forced labour and debt bondage 38
4.4 'White' slavery 39
4.5 Human trafficking 39
4.5.1 The nature of human trafficking 39
4.5.2 Criminalization of human trafficking under the Human Trafficking Protocol 40
4.5.3 Protection of victims 43
4.5.4 Regional conventions 44
4.5.5 Pressure to implement 45
4.6 People smuggling 46
4.6.1 Background to the People Smuggling Protocol 46
4.6.2 People smugglers' crimes and punishments 47
4.6.3 The distinction between trafficked and smuggled persons 48
4.6.4 The protection of migrants' human rights 48
4.7 Conclusion 49
5. DRUG TRAFFICKING 50
5.1 Introduction 50
5.2 Drugs and harm 50
5.2.1 Illicit use and harm 50
5.2.2 Illicit supply and harm 50
5.2.3 Drug prohibition and harm 51
5.3 The institutionalization of drug prohibition through international law 51
5.3.1 Origins 51
5.3.2 Commercial regulation of medicinal drugs 51
5.3.3 Penal measures 52
5.3.4 The relationship between licit and illicit supply 52
5.3.5 Drug classification 53
5.4 Supply reduction in the drug conventions 53
5.4.1 Suppressing the chain of supply 53
5.4.2 Production and refinement 54
5.4.3 Transportation 54
5.4.4 Distribution 55
5.4.5 Possession and purchase for supply 55
5.4.6 Support and organization of supply 55
5.4.7 Punishment for supply offences 56
5.5 Demand reduction provisions in the drug conventions 58
5.5.1 Under the 1961 Convention 58
5.5.2 Under the 1988 Convention 58
5.6 Treatment and harm reduction 59
5.7 The enforcement of the international drug control system 60
5.8 Conclusion 61
6. TERRORISM 62
6.1 Introduction 62
6.2 The nature and concept of terrorism 62
6.3 Aviation offences 64
6.4 Crimes against internationally protected persons 65
6.5 Nuclear terrorism 65
6.6 Hostage-taking 66
6.7 Maritime safety 67
6.8 Terrorist bombings 67
6.9 Terrorist financing 68
6.10 Suppressing terrorism through the UN Security Council 69
6.11 A comprehensive counter-terrorism convention? 71
6.12 Terrorism and human rights 71
6.13 Terrorism as a core international crime? 72
6.14 Conclusion 73
7. TRANSNATIONAL ORGANIZED CRIME 75
7.1 Introduction 75
7.2 The nature of transnational organized crime 75
7.2.1 What is transnational organized crime? 75
7.2.2 The threat of transnational organized crime 76
7.3 The development of the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC) 77
7.3.1 Forerunner legislation 77
7.3.2 The development of the UNTOC 78
7.3.3 The failure to define organized crime 79
7.4 The UNTOC offences 79
7.4.1 Criminalization of participation in an organized criminal group 79
7.4.2 Money laundering 82
7.4.3 Corruption 83
7.4.4 Obstruction of justice 83
7.4.5 Penalties for UNTOC offences 83
7.5 The UNTOC's conditions for international cooperation 83
7.5.1 Two general conditions: transnationality and involvement of an organized criminal group 83
7.5.2 Conditions for the application of the UNTOC to offences in the UNTOC Protocols 85
7.5.3 Conditions for the residual application of the UNTOC to other 'serious crimes' 85
7.6 Criminal responsibility of legal persons 86
7.7 Conclusion 86
8. CORRUPTION 88
8.1 Introduction 88
8.2 The nature of corruption 88
8.3 Forerunner legislation 89
8.4 The Inter-American Convention against Corruption 90
8.5 The OECD Anti-Bribery Convention 91
8.6 Other regional anti-corruption instruments 93
8.7 The UN Convention against Corruption 94
8.7.1 The development of the Convention 94
8.7.2 Crimes 94
8.7.3 Punishment 97
8.8 The effectiveness of the anti-corruption conventions 98
8.9 Conclusion 99
9. MONEY LAUNDERING 100
9.1 Introduction 100
9.2 The nature of money laundering 100
9.3 The domestic roots of the money laundering offence 102
9.4 The money laundering offence 103
9.4.1 The ancillary nature of money laundering 103
9.4.2 The 'internal' elements of money laundering 106
9.5 Criminal liability for legal persons 109
9.6 The punishment of money laundering 109
9.7 Enforcing implementation 110
9.8 Conclusion 110
10. EMERGING TRANSNATIONAL CRIMES 112
10.1 Introduction 112
10.2 Firearms trafficking 112
10.2.1 Background 112
10.2.2 Crimes 113
10.2.3 Shoring up the Firearms Protocol 113
10.3 Illicit traffic in cultural property 113
10.3.1 Background 113
10.3.2 The 1954 Hague Convention 114
10.3.3 The 1970 UNESCO Convention 114
10.3.4 The 1985 European Convention 115
10.3.5 The UNIDROIT Convention 115
10.3.6 Conclusion 115
10.4 Cybercrime 115
10.4.1 Background 115
10.4.2 The Council of Europe Cybercrime Convention 116
10.4.3 A UN Cybercrime Convention? 118
10.5 Environmental crimes 118
10.5.1 Background 118
10.5.2 Illegal, unregulated, and unreported (IUU) fishing 119
10.5.3 Illegal trading in endangered species 120
10.5.4 Illegal logging and timber trafficking 120
10.5.5 Trans-boundary pollution 121
10.5.6 Future developments in regard to environmental crimes 121
10.6 Other emerging transnational crimes 122
10.6.1 Offences against state interests 122
10.6.2 Offences against property interests 122
10.6.3 Offences against children 123
10.6.4 New forms of trafficking 123
11. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TRANSNATIONAL CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS 125
11.1 Crimes 125
11.1.1 Introduction 125
11.1.2 Unlawfulness 126
11.1.3 Material elements 126
11.1.4 Mental elements 127
11.1.5 Participation 127
11.1.6 Inchoate offences 127
11.1.7 Liability of legal persons 128
11.1.8 Defences 128
11.1.9 A general part of transnational criminal law? 129
11.2 The limited impact of international law on domestic penalties 130
PART C. ENFORCEMENT 135
12. JURISDICTION OVER TRANSNATIONAL CRIME 135
12.1 Introduction 135
12.2 Limitations on jurisdiction over transnational crime 135
12.3 Extensions of extraterritorial jurisdiction recognized under the suppression conventions 137
12.4 Territoriality 138
12.4.1 Strict territoriality 138
12.4.2 Quasi-territoriality 139
12.4.3 Subjective and objective territoriality, ubiquity 140
12.4.4 Effects 141
12.5 Personality 142
12.5.1 Nationality 142
12.5.2 Passive personality 144
12.5.3 Protective 145
12.6 Universality 147
12.6.1 The duty to extradite or prosecute/subsidiary universality 147
12.6.2 The questionable effectiveness of subsidiary universality 149
12.6.3 Absolute universality over transnational crime? 150
12.7 Concurrent jurisdiction 152
12.8 Immunity from jurisdiction over transnational crime 153
12.8.1 Introduction 153
12.8.2 Sovereign immunity 154
12.8.3 Diplomatic immunity 155
12.8.4 Immunity of officials from intergovernmental organizations 156
12.8.5 Immunity of officials under their own national law 156
12.9 Conclusion 157
13. INTERNATIONAL LAW ENFORCEMENT COOPERATION 159
13.1 Introduction 159
13.1.1 Enforcing an established jurisdiction 159
13.1.2 Territorial law enforcement against transnational crime 159
13.1.3 Law enforcement against extraterritorial crime 160
13.1.4 The nature of police-to-police cooperation 161
13.2 Information storage and exchange 161
13.2.1 Introduction 161
13.2.2 Provisions in the suppression conventions for information exchange 162
13.2.3 Information exchange in practice 163
13.3 Operational cooperation 165
13.3.1 Introduction 165
13.3.2 Liaison 165
13.3.3 Joint investigations 166
13.3.4 Hot pursuit 168
13.3.5 Special investigative techniques 168
13.3.6 Procedures that enhance or frustrate the suppression of transnational crime 171
13.3.7 Human rights 171
13.4 Law enforcement training 172
13.5 The role of international law enforcement organizations 173
13.6 Conclusion 174
14. LAW ENFORCEMENT COOPERATION ON THE HIGH SEAS 176
14.1 Introduction 176
14.2 Jurisdiction over own vessels 176
14.3 Jurisdiction over stateless vessels 177
14.4 Jurisdiction over foreign vessels 177
14.4.1 Hot pursuit 177
14.4.2 Permission to enforce jurisdiction 178
14.4.3 Interdiction of foreign vessels engaged in drug trafficking 178
14.4.4 Interdiction of foreign slave traders and migrant smugglers 179
14.4.5 Interdiction of foreign pirates 180
14.4.6 Interdiction of foreign fishing vessels 181
14.4.7 Interdiction of foreign vessels carrying weapons of mass destruction 182
14.5 Interdiction of vessels that seek refuge in a foreign states territorial waters 183
14.6 Practical problems 184
14.7 Human rights implications 184
14.8 Conclusion 185
15. LAW ENFORCEMENT COOPERATION THROUGH ANTI-MONEY LAUNDERING AND COUNTERING THE FINANCING OF TERRORISM 186
15.1 Introduction 186
15.2 Obstacles to policing money laundering 187
15.3 The development of the AML regime 187
15.3.1 Forerunner legislation 187
15.3.2 International steps 188
15.3.3 National regulatory measures 191
15.4 The removal of bank secrecy laws 192
15.5 Financial intelligence units 193
15.6 Adaptation of the AML regime to counter-terrorist financing 194
15.7 Conclusion 195
16. LEGAL ASSISTANCE 197
16.1 Introduction 197
16.2 The nature and development of legal assistance 197
16.2.1 Nature 197
16.2.2 Letters rogatory 197
16.2.3 Mutual legal assistance 198
16.3 The scope of the legal assistance provisions in the suppression conventions 199
16.3.1 The general duty to provide mutual legal assistance 199
16.3.2 The limitation of legal assistance to criminal proceedings 200
16.3.3 Types of legal assistance available 201
16.4 The conditions for and exceptions to legal assistance 203
16.4.1 Introduction 203
16.4.2 Conditions 203
16.4.3 Exceptions 205
16.4.4 Conclusion 206
16.5 Procedure for legal assistance 207
16.5.1 Introduction 207
16.5.2 Transmitting requests 207
16.5.3 Execution of requests 208
16.6 The rights of individuals to legal assistance 210
16.7 Alternative methods of acquiring evidence abroad 210
16.8 Conclusion 212
17. EXTRADITION OF TRANSNATIONAL CRIMINALS 214
17.1 Introduction 214
17.2 The legal basis for extradition 215
17.2.1 Extradition treaties, schemes, and national laws 215
17.2.2 Extradition in the suppression conventions 216
17.3 The conditions for and exceptions to extradition 217
17.3.1 Conditions, exceptions, and the rule of non-inquiry 217
17.3.2 Double criminality 218
17.3.3 Extraditable offence 220
17.3.4 Sufficiency of evidence 221
17.3.5 Specialty 222
17.3.6 Political offence exception 223
17.3.7 Non-discrimination 224
17.3.8 Nationality exception 224
17.3.9 Military offence exception 226
17.3.10 Fiscal offence exception 226
17.3.11 Nemo bis in idem 226
17.3.12 Procedural and practical obstacles 227
17.3.13 Penalty exceptions 227
17.4 Human rights in extradition 228
17.4.1 The development of human rights bars 228
17.4.2 Rights and prohibitions relevant in extradition 229
17.5 Extradition procedure 230
17.6 The future of extradition: surrender under the European Arrest Warrant? 230
17.7 Alternatives to extradition 232
17.8 Conclusion 234
18. ASSET RECOVERY 235
18.1 Introduction 235
18.2 The international development of asset recovery 235
18.3 Interim measures: identification, tracing, freezing, and seizing 236
18.4 Conviction-based confiscation 238
18.5 Non-conviction-based forfeiture 240
18.6 International cooperation 243
18.7 Dispersal of recovered assets 245
18.8 Legitimacy and effectiveness 247
19. TRENDS IN TRANSNATIONAL CRIMINAL PROCEDURE 248
19.1 Introduction 248
19.2 Jurisdiction 248
19.3 Reliance of the suppression conventions on the system for international cooperation in criminal matters 249
19.4 Pre-trial law enforcement assistance 249
19.5 Legal assistance for trial purposes 250
19.6 Extradition 251
19.7 Post trial: asset recovery 251
19.8 Conclusion 252
PART D. INSTITUTIONS, IMPLEMENTATION, AND COMPLIANCE 255
20. INSTITUTIONS 255
20.1 Introduction 255
20.2 UN criminal justice institutions 255
20.2.1 Introduction 255
20.2.2 Law-making 255
20.2.3 Policy-making: the ECOSOC's functional commissions 256
20.2.4 Oversight: the International Narcotics Control Board and conferences of parties 256
20.2.5 Administration: the UN Office on Drugs and Crime 257
20.3 Other intergovernmental institutions and organizations 258
20.4 Civil society 259
20.5 Conclusion 259
21. IMPLEMENTATION AND COMPLIANCE 261
21.1 Introduction 261
21.2 Implementation 261
21.3 Compliance 262
21.4 Review mechanisms 264
21.5 The carrot: technical assistance 265
21.6 The sticks: enforcing implementation and compliance 266
21.7 A transnational criminal court? 269
21.8 Conclusion 270
PART E. CONCLUSION 275
22. TRANSNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW: SOME REFLECTIONS 275
22.1 Incremental development 275
22.2 Hard and soft law 275
22.3 A horizontal system 276
22.4 Selective interests 277
22.5 Harmonization of domestic criminal laws 277
22.6 Effective suppression 278
22.7 Transnational criminal law not justice 278
Index 279