PART Ⅰ：Context，Concepts，and Characterization 1
1 Introduction：Context，Concepts，and Characterization 3
Introduction 3
Focus on Basic Principles 3
Transportation：A Broad Field 4
Transportation and the Social-Political-Economic Context 4
Understanding the Dimensions of Transportation 5
Technology 5
Systems 5
Institutions 5
Complex，Large，Integrated，Open Systems（CLIOS） 6
Transportation System Concepts and Characterization 7
Reference 9
2 Transportation System Components：An Internal Perspective 11
Physical Components of Transportation Systems 11
Infrastructure 11
Vehicles 12
Equipment 12
Power Systems 13
Fuel 13
Control，Communications，and Location Systems 14
Summary of Basic Physical Components 15
Operators 16
Labor 16
Organized Labor 16
Management Function 17
Marketing 17
Competition Between Transportation and Communication 18
Strategic Planning 19
Operations 19
Operations/Marketing Tension 19
Maintenance Management 20
Information Management 20
Operations Research 20
Administration 21
Operating Plans 21
Schedule 21
Crew Assignments 22
Flow Distribution 22
Connection Patterns：Hub-and-Spoke 23
Cost/Level-of-Service Trade-Off 24
Contingency Planning 25
3 Transportation System Components：An External Perspective 27
External Components of the Transportation System 27
Government 28
Competition 28
Financial Community 29
Supply Industry 29
Stakeholders 30
General Public 30
The Customer 31
Reference 31
4 The Customer and Level-Of-Service 33
The Customer 33
Freight Transportation Customers 33
Traveler Transportation Customers 36
Choice and Level-of-Service for Freight and Travelers 37
Level-of-Service as Dynamic 38
Reducing Multidimensional Level-of-Service to a Unidimensional Variable 41
Level-of-Service Variables 41
Utility 43
Mode Choice 45
Travel Time Reliabity 46
References 48
5 Networks 49
Networks 49
Links 49
Intermodal Networks 51
Nodes 51
Mathematical Operations on Networks 53
Predicting Link Flows 53
Incremental Assignment 55
The Inverse Problem 56
Logical Links 56
Reference 57
6 Transportation Systems：Key Points 1-10 59
The Elevator Example 59
Elevator System Configuration 59
The Elevator Cycle 60
7 Transportation Systems：Key Points 11-17 69
Key Points Continued 69
Lumpy Elevator Investment 79
Reference 81
8 Transportation Systems：Key Points 18-24 83
Key Points Continued 83
The Mechanics of Supply/Demand Equilibrium 91
Changing Supply 91
Changing Demand 93
Increased Volume：Better or Worse？ 95
Peaking 96
Price as an Incentive 96
Congestion Pricing 97
Pricing of Transportation Services 98
Flow Imbalance 99
9 Transportation Systems：Key Points 25-30 101
Key Points Continued 101
Shifts In Activity Base Related to Transportation 106
Measuring Transportation System Performance 107
What Do Your Customers Perceive？ 107
Performance Measures and Cost 107
System Versus Component Performance 108
Performance Measures and Behavior 108
Network Performance 109
Summary of Key Points 111
Reference 113
10 Models and Frameworks 115
Models and Frameworks：An Introduction 115
A Structure for Transportation Systems Analysis 116
The Subtlety in Choosing Measures-of-Effectiveness 117
Abstraction of Real World into Models or Frameworks 118
Models 118
Is the Abstraction Any Good？ 119
Why Are We Modeling？ 120
Insight 120
Choosing the Best Alternative Optimization 121
System Operation 122
Learn From Model Building Processes 122
Modeling for Negotiation 123
The Model is a Shaper of Your World View 125
Modeling Approaches 126
Getting Answers from Models 127
Models Versus Frameworks 128
Frameworks 128
Porter’s Framework——Strategic Comparative Advantage 129
Simplicity Versus Complexity 131
References 133
11 Modeling Concepts 135
Introduction to Models 135
Hierarchies of Models 136
Modeling Issues 136
Boundaries 136
Macroscopic Versus Microscopic Models 137
Static Versus Dynamic Models 138
Stochastic Versus Deterministic Models 138
Linear Versus Nonlinear 138
Continuous Versus Discrete Models 138
Numerical Simulation Versus Closed Form Solution 140
Behavioral Versus Aggregate Models 140
Physical Versus Mathematical Models 140
Solution Techniques 141
Understanding the System 141
Why We Model 142
Issues in Model Building 143
Time and Resources 143
Data 143
Designing a Successful Model 144
Ease of Use 144
Convincing Models 144
Growth Path 144
Produce Benefits 144
Measuring Model Success 144
New Developments in Models and Frameworks 145
Solution of Very Large Transportation Problems 145
The IT Environment 146
Real-Time Solutions 146
Transportation on the Agenda 146
PART Ⅱ：Freight Transportation 147
12 The Logistics System and Freight Level-Of-Service 149
Freight 149
The Logistics Model：An Umbrella Store 149
Ordering 149
Transportation Costs 150
Storage 150
Deterministic Use Rate and Delivery Time 151
Longer Delivery Time 152
A New，Faster Mode 153
Unreliability in Delivery Time 154
Stock-Outs 157
Service Reliability as a Level-Of-Service Variable 158
Component Reliability Versus Service Reliability 158
Probabilistic Use Rates 158
Inventory Minimization 160
Just-In-Time Systems 161
Structured Inventory Model 162
Trigger Point Systems 162
Total Logistics Costs（TLC） 162
TLC and LOS of Transportation Service 164
Market Segmentation 165
Allocating Scarce Capacity 166
Yield Management 166
Costs 167
Other LOS Variables 167
Loss and Damage 167
Rate Structure 168
Service Frequency 168
Service Availability 168
Equipment Availability and Suitability 168
Shipment Size 169
Information 169
Flexibility 169
13 Railroads：Introductory Concepts 171
Modes 171
Railroads 171
Rail Technology：A Basic View 172
Low-Cost Transportation 172
Railroads as a Monopoly 173
Regulation and Deregulation 173
Railroad Management 174
High Fixed Costs 174
U.S.R ailroads Own Their Infrastructure 175
Freight Transportation Statistics 177
Modal Shares 177
Modal Share：Tons 177
Modal Share：Ton-Miles 178
Modal Share：Revenues 178
Different Modes——Different Roles 179
Railroads Continued 179
Commodities 179
Freight Car Types 179
Double-Stack 180
Gondola cars 181
Tank Cars 181
Hazardous Materials 181
Refrigerator Cars 182
Auto-Rack Cars 182
Specialization in Freight Car Types 182
Railroad Growth and Rationalization 183
Major Shrinkage of Rail Network 184
Substantial Growth/Substantial Rationalization 184
Mergers 185
Branch Line Abandonment 185
Guarding Against Monopoly Power 185
Cross-Subsidies 186
References 186
14 Railroad Operations 187
Railroad Operations 187
Blocking 188
Consolidation 189
Missed Connections 189
Operating Costs 190
Operations Versus Marketing Perspectives 191
Train Dispatching 191
The Choice in Dispatching 192
Holding for Traffic 193
Delay Propagation on Networks 193
Network Stability 194
Operating Plan Integrity 195
Scheduled Versus Flexible Operation 195
Daily Modified Operating Plan 196
How to Define Scheduled Versus Flexible Railroads？ 197
Reference 197
15 Railroad Terminals：P-MAKE Analysis To Predict Network Performance 199
Terminals 199
Terminal Robustness 200
Centralized Versus Decentralized Decision-Making 201
LOS and Routing Over the Rail Network 201
Terminal Operations 202
A Hump Yard 202
Queuing 203
Micro-Simulation 203
A Macro Perspective 203
Think About the Customer 203
P-MAKE Analysis 204
Average Yard Time 205
P-MAKE Analysis 207
Origin-Destination Trip Times 208
Train Frequency 211
Bypassing Yards 211
16 Car Costs and Level-of-Service 215
A More Subtle View of Costs 215
Car Costs 216
Freight Car Cycle 216
Fleet Size Calculation 217
Car Cost/Day Calculation 217
Cost Versus LOS 219
Another View of Car Costs 221
Contribution 221
How Performance Measures Affect Decisions 222
Variability in the Car Cycle 222
Unreliability in Loaded and Empty Moves 223
Car Inventory 223
17 The Kwon Model——Power，Freight Car Fleet Size，and Service Priorities：A Simulation Application 225
Power，Freight Car Fleet Size，and Service Priorities 225
Power Selection 226
Car Fleet Sizing 227
Train Makeup Rules 227
Makeup Rule 1 227
Makeup Rule 2 228
Makeup Rule 3 228
Comparing the Rules 229
Service for Traffic of Different Priority 230
Do You Want to Improve Service？ 231
Allocating Capacity 231
A Nonequilibrium Analysis 232
Investment Strategies：Closed System Assumption 233
Allocating Costs to Priority Classes 234
Simulation Modeling 234
Simulation versus Probabilistic Analysis 236
References 237
18 Measuring Origin-Destination Service and Other Rail Issues 239
Measuring Origin-Destination Service 239
Schedule Adherence 240
Very Bad Trips 240
“X”-Day Percent 240
Other Rail Issues 241
Empty Freight Car Distribution 241
Factors in Movements of Empty Cars 242
Car Ownership 242
Per Diem 243
Clearing House 244
Interline Moves 244
Mergers 245
Parallel and End-to-End Mergers 245
Power Distribution 246
Maintenance 246
Types of Service 247
General Merchandise Service 247
Intermodal Service 247
Bulk Commodities 248
Safety 248
Final Comments on Rail 249
Reference 249
19 Trucking 251
Trucking 251
Publicly-Owned Infrastructure 251
Trucking Cost Structure 252
Truckload Operation（TL） 252
Load-Screening 253
TL Markets 254
Intermodal Partnerships 255
Less-Than-Truckload Operation（LTL） 256
LTL Networks 257
LTL Carriers 258
Regional Versus National LTL 258
New Trucking Technologies 259
Automatic Vehicle Location 259
In-Transit Visibility 259
Weigh-in-Motion 259
Paperless Transaction 260
Private Carriage 260
20 Ocean Shipping，International Freight，and Freight Summary 261
Ocean Shipping 261
Ocean Shipping Services：Wet Bulk And Dry Bulk 261
Environmental Issues and Risk Assessment 262
The Liner Trade 263
Containerization 264
Conferences 264
Liner Decisions 265
Economies of Scale 265
Operating Speed and Cost 265
Service Frequency 266
Empty Repositioning of Containers 266
Intermodalism and International Freight Flows 266
International Trade Patterns 267
Port Operations 269
Port Capacity 269
Dredging 270
Intermodal Productivity 270
The Total Transportation Company 270
Information Technology 270
Toward a National Intermodal System 272
Air Freight 272
Cost/LOS Trade-Offs for Various Modes 273
Freight Summary 273
Key Factors 274
Vehicle-Cycle 274
Vehicles And Infrastructure 274
The Market 274
Operating Plans and Strategic Plans 275
The 30 Key Points 275
Reference 275
PART Ⅲ：Traveler Transportation 277
21 Traveler Transportation：Introduction 279
Traveler Transportation 279
Differences Between Traveler and Freight Transportation 279
The Transportation Process 279
Safety and Security 280
Level-Of-Service Variables 280
Groups 281
Motivation for Travel 281
Travel as Discretionary 282
Success in the Marketplace 282
Substitutability of Communications and Transportation 283
Traveler Transportation Statistics 285
Mode Choice：The Dominance of Cars in the United States 285
Land Use and Highways 286
Suburbanization 286
A Brief History of Metropolitan Areas 287
Commuter Lines and Garden Cities 288
Mega-Cities 290
Ring-Roads 290
Edge City 291
Land Use and Public Transportation 291
Multidisciplinary Approach 292
The New Transportation Professional 293
References 293
22 Commuting，Nonwork Travel and Safety，and Some Transportation History 295
Commuting 295
Suburb-to-Suburb Commutes 295
Public Transportation 296
Nonwork Travel 296
Intercity Travel 298
International Travel 300
Safety by Mode 300
Some Transportation History 302
What Enabled Transportation to Advance？ 303
Technological Developments 303
Automobile Dominance 304
The Gas Tax 304
Construction Jobs 305
The Transportation Industry 305
Environmental Concerns 305
23 Traveler Level-of-Service 307
Traveler Level-of-Service 307
Why People Like Cars 307
Traveler LOS Variables 309
Average Trip Time，Reliability of Trip Time 309
Value-of-Time 309
Aggregating Small Time Savings Over Many People 310
Other LOS Variables：Cost 310
Service Frequency 310
Waiting Time 311
Comfort 311
Safety and Security 311
Intangibles 312
Mode Choice 312
Trip Purpose 312
Modal Options 312
Heirarchical Decision-Making 314
Long-Range Choices 314
Medium-Range Choices 314
Short-Range Choices 314
References 315
24 Intelligent Transportation Systems（ITS） 317
Introduction 317
History 317
The ITS-4 Technologies 319
ISTEA 320
The Strategic Plan 320
Technology，Systems and Institutions 321
Functional Areas In ITS 321
Advanced Transportation Management Systems（ATMS） 321
Incident Management 322
Electronic Toll and Traffic Management（ETTM） 322
Congestion Pricing——Revisited 323
The Philosophy of Highway Network Control 324
Advanced Traveler Information Systems（ATIS） 324
Advanced Vehicle Control Systems（AVCS） 324
Commercial Vehicle Operations（CVO） 325
Advanced Public Transportation Systems（APTS） 325
Advanced Rural Transportation Systems（ARTS） 326
A Broad Systemic Approach 327
Institutional Issues 327
Public-Private Partnerships 327
Organizational Change 328
Transportation and Change 329
Changes Resulting From the Interstate 329
Changes Resulting From ITS 330
The Post-Strategic Plan Period 331
Regional Deployment：A Strategic Vision 332
References 333
25 The Urban Transportation Planning Process and Real-Time Network Control 335
Networks 335
The Urban Transportation Planning Process 335
Choosing the Number and Size of zones 336
Trip Generation 337
Trip Distribution 337
Mode Split 337
Assignment 337
User-Equilibrium 338
System-Equilibrium 339
Network Planning 340
Networks and ITS 341
Real-Time Network Management 341
Why the Tactical Problem is Hard 342
Ashok Formulation 343
Some Research Ideas 345
Value of Perfect Predictions 345
The Link Between Prediction and Control Methods 345
Formal Problem Statement 345
Research Direction 1 346
Research Direction 2 347
Research Direction 3 347
26 Traffic Signals and Other Control Measures 349
Traffic 349
Traffic Light Synchronization 349
Optimizing Traffic Light Settings 350
Traffic Light Synchronization：Levels Of Sophistication 351
The Minus-One Alternative：Mystic Valley Parkway 351
Static Synchronization 351
Time-of-Day Settings 351
Predefined Plans 352
Dynamic Systems 352
Gating and Draining 353
Other Traffic Control Ideas 353
Ramp Metering 354
Dedicated Bus Lanes 354
Reversible Lanes 355
High-Occupancy Vehicle Lanes 355
High-Occupancy Toll Lanes 355
Traffic Calming 356
27 Deterministic Queuing 357
Deterministic Queuing Applied to Traffic Lights 357
Deterministic Queuing 357
Queuing Diagram 358
Computing Total Delay 360
Choosing Capacity 360
A Word on Probabilistic Queuing 361
A Traffic Light as a Deterministic Queue 362
Queuing Diagram for a Traffic Light 363
Queue Stability 363
Delay At A Traffic Signal：Considering One Direction 364
Two Direction Analysis of Traffic Light 365
Delay At A Traffic Signal：Considering Two Directions 366
Choosing an optimum 366
Optimal R1 367
Some Special Cases 368
28 Urban Public Transportation 373
Urban Public Transportation 373
LOS Variables For Urban Travelers 373
How Public Transportation Measures Up 373
Accessibility to Service 374
Types of Urban Public Transportation Service 375
Conventional Bus 375
Para-Transit 375
Demand-Responsive Service 376
Rail Systems 376
Subways 376
Commuter Rail 377
Intermodal Services 377
Public Transportation Patronage 377
Importance of Bus Services 379
Temporal Peaking and Its Implications 379
Characteristics Of The Public Transportation Industry：A Personal View 380
Life-Cycle Costing 382
Wear-and-Tear and Maintenance 383
The Problem With Deferred Maintenance 383
Quality of Infrastructure and LOS 385
The Vicious Cycle 386
Service Design 386
Network Structure 386
The Vehicle Cycle 387
A Simple Example 387
Bus-Bunching：An Explanation 388
The Vicious Cycle：Another Example 389
Control Strategies 389
Holding trains 390
Station-skipping 390
Short-turning 390
Need for Real-time Information 391
ITS—Public Transportation Applications 391
Intermodal Transfers 391
Traveler Information Through ITS 392
Fares，Ridership，and Finance 392
Various Demand Functions 393
Linear Demand 393
Parabolic Demand Curve 394
“Real” Demand Function 395
Equity 395
Air Quality 396
Vicious Cycle 396
Some Other Approaches 396
Conclusion：Public Transportation 397
References 397
29 Intercity Traveler Transportation：Air 399
Intercity Traveler Transportation 399
Air Traveler Transportation：A Brief History 399
The Wright Brothers 399
Airmail and the Kelly Act 399
World War Ⅱ 400
Post-World War Ⅱ 400
Commercial Jet Service 401
The Eastern Shuttle 401
Wide-Bodies 401
Airline Costs 401
Regulation 402
Reasons for Air Industry Financial Problems 402
Air Traveler Transportation and the 30 Key Points 403
Stochasticity 403
Peaking in Demand 404
Selecting Capacity 404
Network Behavior 404
Land-Side Issues 405
Airport Access 405
LOS Implications 406
Proximity of Airport to Center City 406
Rail Access to Airports 407
Airport Terminal Design 407
Airports as Commercial Centers 408
Important Air Issues 408
Airport Capacity 408
Congestion Pricing at Airports 408
Hub-and-Spoke Airline Operations 409
Hub-and-Spoke as a Cost/LOS Trade-Off 409
Hub-and-Spoke Operations and System Stability 410
Network Control：Ground Holds 411
Safety 411
Aircraft Technology 412
Aircraft Size 412
Short Take-Off and Landing Aircraft 413
Hypersonic Flight 413
The Space Plane 414
Engine and Materials Technology 414
Airplanes as a United States Export Industry 414
Yield Management in Air Transportation 414
Air Transportation as an Example of Subsidies 415
Frequent Flyer Programs 416
Subsidies Resumed 416
Does Society-at-Large Benefit Enough to Warrant the Subsidy？ 417
Reference 419
30 Intercity Traveler Transportation：Rail 421
Rail Traveler Transportation 421
Rail Terminal Locations：An Advantage 421
Trains：A Surface Mode 422
The Problem：Speed 422
The United States：A Big Country 423
Noise Impact 423
United States National Transportation Policy and Passenger Rail 424
United StatesIntercity Transportation Investment by the Public Sector 425
Strong Modal Orientation 426
Rail Passenger Data：An Historical Perspective 426
Amtrak 428
International Systems 429
Technology for High-Speed Rail 430
The Cost of Speed 431
Incremental High-Speed Rail 432
Mag-Lev 433
Mag-Lev Service Concepts 434
Incremental High-Speed Rail：Resumed 435
Operations Issues for Incremental High-Speed Rail 435
Amtrak Funding and Structure 437
Perspectives of Freight Railroads on Passenger Service 438
Capacity 438
Liability 438
Cost-Sharing and Cost-Allocation 439
Growth Path for Incremental High-Speed Rail 439
The 30 Key Points and Traveler Transportation 440
References 441
Afterword 443
Bibliography 445
1.General Transportation and Modeling 445
2.Transportation Demand and Economics 446
3.Transportation Statistics 446
4.Highways/Automotive 446
5.Intelligent Transportation Systems（ITS） 447
6.Public Transportation 447
7.Urban Transportation，Form and Issues 448
8.Passenger Rail 449
9.Airports 449
10.Freight：Railroads and Trucking 450
11.Maritime Freight 450
12.Intermodal Freight 450
13.Regional Transportation Issues 451
14.Transportation in Developing Countries 451
15.Sustainable Transportation/ Energy 451
16.Transportation Technology 452
17.Transportation Organizations/Governance/Institutions 452
18.History of Transportation 453
19.Management/Economic Trends and Ideas 453
About the Author 455
Index 457