1.Introduction 1
2.Foundations of the Legal System 5
2.1 United States 5
2.2 Japan 11
2.2.1 Pre-Meiji Japan 11
2.2.2 Meiji Japan’s Adoption of Western Legal Models 16
2.3 What You See May Not Be What You Get 19
2.3.1 “Restoration”? 19
2.3.2 A Western Legal System? 20
3.Constitutional Ideology 25
3.1 United States 25
3.2 Japan 28
3.3 What You See May Not Be What You Get 33
3.3.1 Executive and Legislative Power 33
3.3.2 Limits on National Government Powers—Local Government Powers 39
3.3.3 Limitations on Private Actions Deemed in Violation of the Constitution 45
3.3.4 Hortatory Rights—Public Welfare Restraints 49
4.Separation of Church and State 53
4.1 United States 53
4.2 Japan 58
4.3 What You See May Not Be What You Get 59
4.3.1 Tsu City Case 61
4.3.2 Ehime Prefecture Case 62
4.3.3 Miscellaneous Cases 64
4.3.4 Enshrinement Case 66
5.Equality and Issues of Discrimination 69
5.1 Racial and Ethnic Discrimination 69
5.1.1 United States 69
5.1.2 Japan 74
5.1.3 What You See May Not Be What You Get 76
5.1.3.1 Aliens 76
5.1.3.2 Burakumin 82
5.1.3.3 Ainu 85
5.2 Sex Discrimination 89
5.2.1 United States 89
5.2.2 Japan 90
5.2.3 What You See May Not Be What You Get 92
6.The Judiciary 105
6.1 United States 105
6.2 Japan 110
6.3 What You See May Not Be What You Get 113
6.3.1 Judicial “Independence” 116
6.3.2 Judicial Review 119
6.3.2.1 Pharmacy Location Case from Hiroshima 121
6.3.2.2 Patricide Case 123
6.3.2.3 The Forest Division Case 124
6.3.2.4 Voting Rights Apportionment Cases 125
6.3.2.5 The Effect of a Finding of Unconstitutionality 128
6.3.2.6 Judicial Review—Restrictions 129
7.The Legal Profession 133
7.1 United States 133
7.2 Japan 135
7.3 What You See May Not Be What You Get 138
8.Article 9—Renunciation of War—Military Power and Responsibility 145
8.1 United States 145
8.2 Japan 147
8.3 What You See May Not Be What You Get 151
8.3.1 Article 9—Interpretation 152
8.3.2 Article 9—Litigation 156
8.3.2.1 The Sunakawa Case 156
8.3.2.2 The Naganuma Case 157
8.3.2.3 The Hyakuri Air Base Case 158
8.3.2.4 The Okinawa Mandamus Case 159
8.3.2.5 Recent Lower Court Cases 160
8.3.3 Political Challenges 160
8.3.4 Article 9—Terrorism 161
8.3.5 Command and Control 163
8.3.6 Constitutional Transformation 164
9.Treaties 167
9.1 United States 167
9.2 Japan 168
9.3 What You See May Not Be What You Get 168
10.Corporate Matters 181
10.1 United States 181
10.2 Japan 183
10.3 What You See May Not Be What You Get 185
11.Contracts 213
11.1 United States 213
11.2 Japan 217
11.3 What You See May Not Be What You Get 219
11.3.1 Contracts Take Account of Changing Circumstances 223
11.3.2 Means of Enforcement Are Different 224
12.Civil Litigation 229
12.1 United States 229
12.2 Japan 230
12.3 What You See May Not Be What You Get 232
12.3.1 Access to the Judicial System 240
12.3.2 Civil Procedure 242
12.3.2.1 United States 242
12.3.2.2 Japan 245
12.3.2.3 Remedy 253
12.3.2.4 Role of the Public 258
12.3.2.5 Alternative Dispute Resolution and Other Extra-Judicial Remedies 259
12.3.2.6 Judicial Reform 263
13.Criminal Law 269
13.1 United States 269
13.2 Japan 273
13.3 What You See May Not Be What You Get 277
13.3.1 General Comment 277
13.3.1.1 United States 278
13.3.1.2 Japan 281
13.3.1.2.1 Substantive Criminal Law 281
13.3.1.2.2 Procedural Law 284
Police 285
Prosecutor 289
Investigative Function 290
Quasi-Judicial Function 292
Defense Counsel 297
Judge and Trial 298
Defendant 304
13.3.1.2.3 Constitutional Guarantees and Protections Afforded the Criminal Suspect and Accused 304
Confession 305
Right to Counsel 307
No Person Shall Be Compelled to Testify Against Himself 312
Immunity from Prosecution 314
Bail 315
Speedy Trial 316
Double Jeopardy Prohibited 317
13.3.1.2.4 Reform Proposals 318
14.Administrative Law 321
14.1 United States. 321
14.2 Japan 325
14.3 What You See May Not Be What You Get 326
14.3.1 Koboku Suits to Review Administrative Action 326
14.3.1.1 Standing 328
14.3.1.2 Disposition or Shobun 331
14.3.1.3 Judicial Restraint—Substitutes for Administrative Review 334
14.3.1.4 Judicial Reform 335
14.3.2 Administrative Guidance 335
14.3.3 Administrative Procedure 348
14.3.4 Other Administrative Matters 350
15.Unifying Factors 353
15.1 Harmony and a Balancing of Societal Interests vs. Individual Rights. 357
15.2 The Common Sense of Society vs.Strict Interpretation 361
15.3 Group vs.Personal Interests 365
15.4 Substantive Justice 368
16.Conclusion 369
Table of Japanese Cases 373
Table of United States Cases. 379
About the Author 383
Index 385