1 Introduction 1
Chapter outlines 7
2 Registers - a source of 'tyranny and intimidation'? 9
An early history of registration 1OEarly modern times (1500-1800) 10
Nineteenthocentury registers 13
A registration idea from Australia 16
Tickets of leave the UK version 17
The registration of convicted offenders in the UK 18
A registration idea from British India 20
The twentieth century and the new liberal state 22
Registering the alien 22
Conclusions 23
3 Twentieth-century registration of the deviant, the dangerous and the offender 25
Framing the sex crime 25
Registration in Germany 26
Registering criminals in the USA - an early example 28
The UK's approach to child sex offenders in the 1930s 31
Information on adults 32
Children's registers 33
Registers for people with mental health problems 35
The US first wave" and the first sex offender registers 36
'An age of complacency'? 38
Conclusions 39
4 Sex offender registers in the United States of America 40
State initiatives on registration 40
Developments in other states 44
Federal laws on registration and community notification 45
1994: The Jacob Wetterling Crimes against Children and Sexually Violent Offender Registration Act 45
1996: 'Megan's Law' 47
1996: The Pam Lychner Sexual Offender Tracking and Identification Act 48
1998: The Jacob Wetterling Improvements Act 49
2000: The Campus Sex Crimes Prevention Act 49
2003: The Prosecutorial Remedies and other Tools to End the Exploitation of Children Today (PROTECT) Act 50
2006: The Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act 50
The Sex Offender Registration and Notification Act: requirements of the states 50
The Sex Offender Registration and Notification Act: the federal role 52
Implementing the Sex Offender Registration and Notification Act 54
2008: The Keeping the Internet Devoid of Sexual Predators Act (the KIDS Act) 55
Other US developments 55
Legal challenges to the US registers 56
Conclusions 57
5 The UK sex offender register 59
Origins o fan idea 59
'Sentencing and supervision of sex offenders' 61
The Sex Offender Bill 62
The Sex Offenders Act 1997 64
The register in practice 64
The Criminal Justice and Court Services Act 2000 65
Multi-agency public protection arrangements 66
'Where are they now?' 68
The 2001 review 68
The Sexual Offences Act 2003 69
2005: Managing Sex Offenders in the Community 71
2005: The Irving Review 72
2007: 'Cross government action plan on sexual violence and abuse' 72
2007: Review of the Protection of Children from Sex Offenders 73
CEOP and ViSOR 74
2010: Restriction and rehabilitation: getting the right mix 75
Legal challenges to the UK register 76
Conclusions 79
6 Registers around the world 80
The Republic of Ireland 80
France 83
Jersey 84
Canada 86
Provincial registers 86
The federal register 87
Australia 89
State and territories registers 90
The federal register 92
Pitcairn Island 92
Republic of South Africa 93
Kenya 94
Jamaica 95
Conclusions 96
7 Sex offender registers in progress and cross-border monitoring 97
Austria 97
The Czech Republic 97
Germany 98
Belgium 98
Hong Kong 99
New Zealand 100
Monitoring sex offenders across international borders 102
Avoiding registration requirements 102
New offending 103
'Sexual tourism' 104
Avoiding employment screening 105
Monitoring the movement of the outbound sex offender 106
Monitoring the movement of the inbound sex offender 108
A bilateral arrangement.: tracking sex offenders moving between the Republic of lreland and Northern Ireland 110
International sex offender registers 112
Conclusions 113
8 Community notification and residence restrictions 114
Community notification or 'Megan's Law' 114
Unofficial community notification 118
The 'For Sarah' campaign 120
Discretionary disclosure 122
A 'presumption to disclose' 124
Residential restrictions on sex offenders 126
Sex offender residency restriction in the USA 128
Sex offender residency restriction in the UK 130
Conclusions 131
9 Making sense of sex offender registers 132
Introduction 132
Maintaining the register 132
Monitoring and enforcement 134
Compliance and accuracy 135
The impact of being on the register 137
Relationships 139
Harassment 139
Stigmatisation and vulnerability 141
Employment 141
The question of privacy 143
Monitoring those without convictions 143
Registration and young sex offenders 144
What is the evidence that registration and community notification works? 146
Is registration just media led? 148
Conclusions 149
10 Conclusions 151
Other methods of monitoring the sex offender 151
Why sex offenders? 153
From dangerousness to risk to the 'precautionary principle' 153
Criminology of the 'other' 155
Criminology of 'us' 156
Surveillance studies 158
Bibliography 160
Index 178