Introduction—Criminology: its origins and research methods 1
The origins of criminology 1
The development of criminology in Britain 2
The development of criminology in the USA 4
Britain's radical contribution 5
The past thirty years 6
Methods of criminological research 6
Quantitative research 7
Qualitative research 9
Conclusion 10
PARTⅠ CRIME AND CRIME CONTROL: ALTERNATIVE DISCOURSES 10
1 Crime: definitions and conflicting images 13
Problems of definition and context 13
Alternative definitions of'criminal' behaviour 16
Crime is in the eye of the beholder 19
Crime as protecting the interests of the powerful 20
Conflicting images of crime 21
Autonomous behaviour v structural forces 21
Rich law v poor law 22
Corporate crime v street crime 24
Terrorism v justifiable state action 28
Conclusion 30
2 The statistics on crime and their meaning 31
Court statistics 32
Police statistics 32
Reporting crime 33
Recording crime 35
The counting rules 38
The National Crime Recording Standard 39
Victim surveys 40
Self-report surveys 45
International crime comparisons 47
Official data 47
The International Crime Victims Survey 48
The International Study of Self-Reported Delinquency 49
Conclusion 49
3 The media and 'law and order' 51
Legal constraints on the media 51
Sources of the media's information on crime 52
The police 52
Other sources of information 53
Selection of crime news 53
The content of crime news 57
A media agenda? 59
The implications of the media's portrayal of crime 62
Deviance amplification 62
Moral panic 63
Public perception of crime 65
Effect on attitudes and behaviour 66
Effect on sentencers 68
Conclusion 68
PARTⅡ SOCIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME 68
4 The classical and positivist traditions 73
Pre-Enlightenment Europe 73
The classical school 74
Cesare Beccaria 75
Jeremy Bentham 77
Problems with classicism 78
The neoclassical school 79
The positivist school 80
Quetelet and Guerry 81
Cesare Lombroso 82
Enrico Ferri 83
Raffaele Garofalo 84
Evaluation 85
The classical and positivist approaches: later developments 87
Conclusion 89
5 Crime and the environment 90
The Victorian slum 90
The Chicago School and social disorganisation 92
Differential association—the interactionist link 96
Evaluation of differential association 98
The legacies of the Chicago School 100
Post-war developments in Britain 101
The growth of modern environmental criminology 102
Effects on social policy—USA 104
Effects on social policy—Britain 106
Conclusion 109
6 Poverty, anomie and strain 112
Crime and poverty 112
Crime and unemployment 113
Economic inequality 115
Conclusion 116
Functionalism and anomie 116
Emile Durkheim 117
Merton, anomie and strain 121
DUrkheim and Merton 124
Evaluation of Merton's theory 124
Empirical support 127
Early developments of anomie theory 127
More recent developments of anomie theory 128
Agnew's general strain theory 128
'Crime and the American Dream' 130
'The Exclusive Society' 132
Conclusion 132
7 Subcultural theories 134
Frederick M Thrasher 134
William F Whyte 135
Albert K Cohen 135
Walter B Miller 138
Criticism 140
Richard A Cloward and Lloyd E Ohlin 141
Delinquency and opportunity: criticisms 143
Evaluation of American subcultural theories 144
David Matza 145
The early British research 148
British subcultures in the 1970s 149
The new millennium—from gangs to delinquent youth groups 152
Girls and subcultures 153
Race and gangs 155
Conclusion 155
8 Interactionism and phenomenology 157
Interactionism 157
Evaluation 162
Policy implications 166
Reintegrative shaming 168
Conclusion 173
Phenomenology and ethnomethodology 174
Katz's 'Seductions of Crime' 177
Cultural criminology 179
Evaluation 180
9 Conflict, Marxist and radical theories of crime 181
Conflict theorists 181
Thorsten Sellin 181
George Vold 182
Ralf Dahrendorf 183
Austin T Turk 184
The transition 185
Richard Quinney 1 185
William Chambliss 1 186
Evaluation of conflict criminology 188
Marxist criminology 190
Willem Bonger 190
Richard Quinney 2 191
William Chambliss 2 192
Marxism and crime in Britain: 'The New Criminology' 193
Evaluation of Marxist criminology 197
Late modernism and the post modern condition 199
The 'risk society' 199
Post modernism 201
Peacemaking criminology 203
Constitutive criminology 203
Conclusion 204
10 Realist criminology and victims 206
Right Realism 206
Evaluation 209
Left Realism 210
Evaluation 213
Victims 217
Conclusion 223
11 Theories of control 225
Early social control theories 226
Travis Hirschi and social control 228
Gottfredson and Hirschi's individual control theory 230
Hagan's power control theory 234
Control theory in Britain 235
Evalualion 238
Tittle's control balance 240
Conclusion 242
12 Gender and crime 244
The extent of female crime 244
Traditional criminology: biological and psychological explanations 246
Cesare Lombroso 246
W I Thomas 247
Sigmund Freud 248
Otto Pollak 248
Later positivist work 249
Traditional criminology: sociological explanations 251
Female emancipation 256
Radical feminism 259
Masculinities and crime 260
Masculinities and crime: problems 263
Conclusion 265
PARTⅢ BIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF CRIME 265
13 Biological factors and crime 269
Constitutional factors 269
Cesare Lombroso 269
Charles Goring 270
Earnest Hooton 271
William Sheldon and body types 272
Genetic factors 274
Twin studies 275
Adoption studies 277
Chromosome abnormalities 279
Biochemical factors 282
Neurotransmitters 282
Hormones 283
Nutrition and hypoglycaemia 286
The environment 287
Central nervous system 287
Epilepsy 288
Brain damage and dysfunction 289
Autonomic nervous system 291
Alcohol and drugs 292
Alcohol 293
Drugs 295
Conclusion 296
14 Intelligence, mental disorder and crime 300
Intelligence and crime 300
Background 300
Intelligence and crime 301
Race, intelligence and crime 303
Conclusion 305
Mental disorder and crime 306
The legal definition 307
The relationship between crime and mental disorder 308
Mental disorder in criminals 308
Criminal behaviour in mentally disordered populations 309
Forms of mental disorder 310
Mental disorder and violence 316
Conclusion 317
15 Personality theories 319
The search for 'criminal' traits 319
Psychoanalytic explanations of crime 320
The Freudian personality 321
Phases of personality development 322
Methods of dealing with instinctual urges 322
Resolution of the Oedipus complex 323
Later problems with the superego 324
Attachment 326
Evaluation 329
Conclusion 330
Learning theories 331
Classical conditioning 332
Operant learning 332
Social learning theory 333
Rational choice theory 335
TV and film violence 336
Differential association theory 339
Eysenck's theory of criminality 339
Structure of personality 340
The biological basis of personality 342
Socialisation 342
Gordon Trasler 343
Evaluation 343
Conclusion 344
16 Violent, aggressive and sexual offences 346
Violent and aggressive offences 346
Frequency of violent offences 347
Explanations of violent offending 348
Factors precipitating violence 351
The aggressive personality 351
Spouse or partner abuse 352
Child abuse 354
Sexual offences 358
Frequency of sexual offences 358
Explanations of sexual offending 360
Exposure 361
Sexual offences against children 362
Rape 364
Conclusion 369
And finally 371
Bibliography 375
Name index 429
Subject index 437