1 Introduction 1
Police Goals and Objectives 2
Evidence Defined 7
The Interpretive Value of Evidence 8
Good Crime Scene Examinations and Scene Integrity Issues 13
Investigative Ethics 18
Summary 21
Suggested Reading 22
Chapter Questions 22
Notes 22
2 Understanding the Nature of Physical Evidence 25
Class and Individual Characteristics 26
Fingerprint Evidence 28
Serology and Biological Evidence 30
Trace Evidence 37
Hairs and Fibers 38
Glass 39
Paints and Polymers 42
Soils 43
Gunshot Residues (GSRs) 44
Firearm and Ballistic Evidence 44
Tool Mark Evidence 50
Impression Evidence 51
General Chemical Evidence 54
Document Evidence 55
Computer Forensics 56
Forensic Pathology 57
Summary 58
Suggested Reading 58
Chapter Questions 59
Notes 59
3 Actions of the Initial Responding Officer 61
Specific Objectives of the Initial Response 61
Documenting Initial Information 62
Officer Safety 63
Emergency Care 64
Secure and Control the Crime Scene 70
Release the Scene to Appropriate Authorities 75
Summary 76
Suggested Reading 76
Chapter Questions 76
Notes 77
4 Processing Methodology 79
Basic Activities of Scene Processing 80
Assessing 80
Observing 80
Documenting 81
Searching 81
Collecting 81
Processing/Analyzing 83
A Processing Model 84
The Adapted USACIDC Processing Model 85
Step 1: Initial Notification 85
Step 2: Coordination, Assessment, and Team Call-Out 85
Step 3: Conduct Initial Observations 85
Step 4: Deal with the Deceased 86
Step 5: Photograph the Scene 87
Step 6: Document Overall Observations 87
Step 7: Sketch the Scene 88
Step 8: Conduct a First Recheck 88
Step 9: Release the Body 88
Step 10: Collect Items of Evidence 90
Step 11: Conduct a Second Recheck of the Scene 90
Step 12: Conduct a Third Recheck of the Scene 91
Step 13: Check beyond the Scene 91
Step 14: Conduct an On-Scene Debriefing of the Investigative Team 91
Step 15: Release or Secure the Scene 91
Step 16: Process and Package Evidence 92
Step 17: Conduct a Formal Debriefing 92
Summary 92
Suggested Reading 93
Chapter Questions 93
Notes 93
5 Assessing the Scene 95
Debriefing the Responding Officers 95
Scene Scope and Boundary Assessment 98
Scene Integrity and Contamination Control 98
Managing Access 103
Defining Team Composition 105
Crime Scene Search Considerations 108
Search Patterns 113
Circle or Spiral Search 113
Strip and Line Search 114
Grid Search 115
Zone Search 115
Point-to-Point Search 118
Personal Protective Measures and Hazard Identification 118
Biohazard Risks 119
Structural Hazards in Fire and Explosion Scenes 121
Chemical and Inhalation Hazards in Fire and Explosion Scenes 122
Inhalation, Chemical, or Fire Hazards from Scene Processing Techniques 122
Chemical and Bioterror Hazards 123
Considerations for Mass Crime Scene and Mass Casualty Situations 124
Pre-Event Considerations of Crime Scene Supervisors 125
Practical On-Scene Considerations for the Mass Scene 127
Managing the Media 128
Summary 129
Suggested Reading 132
Chapter Questions 132
Notes 132
6 Crime Scene Photography 135
What Makes Good Photographs 136
Recurring Problems in Crime Scene Photography 138
Identification Problems 139
Orientation Problems 140
Confusion Problems 140
Incomplete Documentation 142
Types and Purpose of Crime Scene Photographs 142
Overall Photographs 142
Corner or Side—You Decide 143
Evidence-Establishing Photographs 148
What's in a Name: Evidence-Establishing vs. Mid-Range Photos 151
Evidence Close-Up and Forensic Quality Photographs 153
The Road Mapping Method of Photographic Documentation 156
A Basic Methodology to Crime Scene Photography 172
Camera Control Issues 175
Video Photography 178
Summary 180
Suggested Reading 181
Chapter Questions 181
Notes 181
7 Crime Scene Sketching and Mapping 183
Essential Sketch Elements 183
Variations of View in Sketches 186
Methods for Crime Scene Mapping 190
Rectangular Coordinates 192
Triangulation 194
Baseline Coordinates 197
Polar Coordinates 201
Triangulation or Rectangular Coordinates on a Grid 207
Triangulation on a Baseline 212
Technology in Support of Crime Scene Mapping 213
Total Station Mapping 213
Scan Station Mapping 217
Summary 220
Suggested Reading 221
Chapter Questions 221
Notes 221
8 Narrative Descriptions: Crime Scene Notes and Reports 223
Investigative Notes 223
Crime Scene Reports 228
Introduction Section 229
Characteristics of the Scene 229
Conditions of the Scene 231
Environmental Conditions 233
Factors Pertinent to Entry and Exit 234
Scene Documentation 234
Collection of Physical Evidence 235
Search for Latent Fingerprints or DNA 235
Additional Examinations 236
General Considerations 236
Summary 237
Suggested Reading 237
Chapter Questions 237
9 Basic Skills for Scene Processing 239
ROSS M. GARDNER WITH CONTRIBUTIONS BY DON COFFEY, JEREMY JOHN, AND TOM ADAIRApplying Light Technology 239
Shortwave Ultraviolet Light (180 to 254 nm) and Reflected Ultraviolet Imaging Systems (RUVIS) 242
Longwave Ultraviolet Light (365 to 415 nm) 245
Near-UV and Violet/Blue Light (415 to 485 nm) 246
Crime Scene Search with Blue Light (485 to 530 nm) 246
Orange-Red (570 to 700 nm) 246
Infrared (700 to 2,000 nm) 246
Heat Energy and Thermal Imaging (12,000 nm) 250
Choosing an Alternative Light Source 251
Recovering Fingerprints 254
The Science of Fingerprints 254
Classification vs. Identification 256
AFIS Fingerprint Systems 257
Collecting Fingerprint Evidence 258
Surface Characteristics 259
Porous Surfaces 260
Nonporous Smooth Surfaces 261
Nonporous Rough Surfaces 262
Special Surfaces or Conditions 264
On-Scene Fingerprinting Techniques 265
Cyanoacrylate Fuming (Superglue Fuming) 266
Basic Brush-and-Powder Techniques 268
Small-Particle Reagent 272
Adding Machine Paper Technique for Human Skin 274
Crystal Violet Solution for Adhesive Tape 276
Fingerprints in Fire Scenes 277
Casting Impression Evidence 278
Rubber Casting Compounds 279
Electrostatic Dust Lifting Devices 281
Dental Stone Casting Techniques 284
Snow Prints 290
Gelatin and Other Adhesive Lifters 294
Summary 296
Suggested Reading 297
Chapter Questions 297
Notes 298
10 Shooting Scene Documentation and Reconstruction 299
ROSS M. GARDNER AND MICHAEL MALONEYInternal Ballistics 300
Terminal Ballistics 302
External Ballistics 304
Bullet Defect Verification through Chemical Evaluation 304
Defining the Bullet Impact Angle Based on Defect Shape 306
Direction of Fire 311
Use of Trajectory Rods and Lasers to Demonstrate Bullet Flight Paths 316
Describing Zones of Possibility 324
Trajectory Analysis Documentation 326
Summary 327
Suggested Reading 328
Chapter Questions 328
Notes 328
11 Applying Bloodstain Pattern Analysis in the Crime Scene 331
Bloodstain Pattern Analysis 331
Theory and Underlying Principles of Bloodstain Pattern Analysis 331
The Pattern Diversity Principle 332
The Principle of Stain Shape and Vector Correlation 334
The Physically Altered Bloodstain Principle 339
Methodology of BPA 339
Classifying Bloodstain Patterns 339
Documenting Bloodstain Patterns 351
Presumptive Tests for Bloodstains 353
Luminol Enhancement of Latent Bloodstains 355
Fluorescein Enhancement of Latent Bloodstains 357
Amido-Black Enhancement of Latent Bloodstains 358
Infrared Photography 358
Summary 358
Suggested Reading 361
Chapter Questions 361
Notes 362
12 The Body as a Crime Scene 363
ROSS M. GARDNER AND MICHAEL MALONEYExamination of the Corpse In Situ 363
Assessing 363
Observing, Documenting, Searching, and Collecting 366
Examination of the Corpse at the Morgue 369
Examination of a Live Individual 369
Understanding Basic Mechanisms of Injuries 371
Summary 381
Suggested Reading 381
Chapter Questions 381
13 Special Scene Considerations 383
Fire Scenes 383
Fire Patterns 384
Problems Associated with Fire Scenes 389
Fire Scene Methodology 390
Landfill Recoveries 394
Problems Associated with Landfill Recoveries 394
Landfill Recovery Methodology 396
Buried and Scattered Remains 399
Buried Bodies 399
Scattered Remains 405
Entomological Evidence Associated with Bodies 407
Summary 408
Suggested Reading 410
Chapter Questions 410
Notes 410
14 The Role of Crime Scene Analysis and Reconstruction 413
A History of the Concept of Crime Scene Reconstruction 416
The Underlying Principles of Crime Scene Reconstruction 418
Crime Scene Reconstruction Methodology 420
Scientific Method Used to Resolve a Specific Investigative Question 421
Event Analysis: Reconstructing Entire Events 423
Step 1: Collect Data, Establish Likely Events 425
Step 2: Establish Event Segments from the Data Available 426
Step 3: Define Associated Event Segments 430
Step 4: Order and Sequence the Associated Event Segments 431
Step 5: Audit the Information 434
Step 6: Determine and Final-Order the Events 434
Step 7: Final Flowchart of the Overall Incident Based on the Event and Event Segment Sequence 435
Summary 436
Suggested Reading 437
Chapter Questions 437
Notes 437
Appendix A: Crime Scene Equipment 439
Appendix B: Risk Management 445
Index 449