1 Demographic, economic and political overview 1
Demography 1
Economy 3
Government and politics 7
Federal government 8
State and local government 14
Political parties and elections 15
2 Organization, development and finance of US science and technology 17
Science and technology in US society 17
Development of US science and technology 18
From colonial days to World War II 18
From World War II to the present 20
Support and performance of r&d in the US 22
Industry 24
Government 25
Universities and colleges 26
Nonprofit institutions and state and local governments 26
Trends in funding 27
Scientific and engineering personnel 29
3 Policymaking for science and technology 35
Overview 35
The role of the Executive Branch 36
Office of Management and Budget 37
Office of Science and Technology Policy 38
Agencies of the Executive Branch 38
The role of Congress 39
Forms of Congressional influence 39
Congressional organization for science and technology 40
The role of non government institutions in science and technology policy 42
Science and technology policy in the 1980s: recent trends and issues 45
Shifting political winds 45
The federal budget situation 46
Growing interest in high technology 46
Technology transfer and information control 47
4 Government science and technology 49
Overview 49
Department of Defense 52
Background 52
Purpose and organization 53
Major r&d elements 55
DOD basic research 58
National Aeronautics and Space Administration 58
Space science and applications 59
Space station 60
Space transportation 60
Aeronautical research and technology 60
Space tracking and data systems 61
Field installations 61
Department of Energy 63
Background 63
Overall organization 63
Field structure 64
Headquarters organization 64
Multiprogramme national laboratories 66
Other DOE r&d facilities 69
Department of Health and Human Services 70
Introduction 70
National Institutes of Health (NIH) 70
Issues affecting NIH 76
Other parts of the Public Health Service 77
Other units of the Department of Health and Human Services 79
National Science Foundation 80
Overview 80
Organization 81
Mathematical and Physical Sciences (MPS) 83
Engineering 85
Biological, Behavioural and Social Sciences (BBS) 86
Astronomical, Atmospheric, Earth and Ocean Sciences (AAEO) 86
Other programmes 86
Department of Agriculture 86
Agricultural Research Service (ARS) 87
Cooperative State Research Service (CSRS) 88
Forest Service 89
Other programmes 89
Department of the Interior 90
US Geological Survey 90
Fish and Wildlife Service 92
Bureau of Mines 92
Bureau of Reclamation 93
Other programmes 93
Department of Transportation 94
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) 94
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) 95
Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA) 95
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) 95
Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) 96
Other programmes 96
Environmental Protection Agency 96
Organizational overview 96
Acid rain research 99
Toxic substances 100
Pesticides 100
Hazardous wastes 100
Air research 100
Water quality and drinking water 101
Interdisciplinary/intermedia programme 101
Department of Commerce 101
Economic, statistical and related bureaux 102
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 103
National Bureau of Standards (NBS) 104
Department of Education 106
National Institute of Education (NIE) 106
National Institute of Handicapped Research (NIHR) 107
Other programmes 108
Science and technology in other agencyes 108
Agency for international Development (AID) 108
Smithsonian Institution 109
US Army Corps of Engineers 109
Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) 110
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) 110
Nuclear Regulatory Commission(NRC) 110
Department of Labor 111
Department of Justice 111
Department of Housing and Urban Development 111
Department of the Treasury 111
Veterans Administration 112
5 Higher education and academic science 113
Research and higher education 113
Types of institutions 113
Research and the federal government 114
Organizational structures and research 114
R&D at universities and colleges: facts and figures 116
Total expenditure 116
Sources of funding 116
Character of work and support mechanisms 120
Fields of research 122
Instrumentation and facilities 122
Undergraduate and graduate education 124
Undergraduate and education 124
Graduate education in science and engineering 125
Foreign students 126
Women and disadvantaged minorities 127
Student financial assistance 130
College and university faculty members 131
The role of organized research units 134
Relations between the federal government and colleges and universities 135
Issues 136
Institutional versus project support 136
Peer review 137
Accountability 139
Funding instruments 139
Facilitating organizations 140
University-industry relations 141
6 Industrial research and development 145
Overview: the role of Industry in r&d 145
Company funded and federally funded r&d 145
Statistical profile of Industrial r&d 146
Basic research in Industry 151
Statistical overview 151
The role of key firms 152
Influences on Industrial r&d 154
Relationship of Industry and government r&d 155
Industrial cooperation 156
R&D in large and small firms 156
R&D as an Industry 158
International issues for US Industry 158
Conclusion 160
7 Research and development in nonprofit institutions 163
The nonprofit sector 163
Nonprofit research institutes 165
FFRDCs 167
Foundations 168
Other institutions 172
Voluntary hospitals 172
Scientific/technical societies and academies of science 173
Nonprofit scientific exhibitors 173
Others 173
8 Agricultural science and technology 175
Nature of agricultural r&d in the US 175
The federal role 177
USDA 177
Other federal agencies 180
8 Agricultural r&d in the private sector 180
Fertilizers and pesticides 181
Food processing 183
Issues 184
Quality of research and scientific manpower 184
Biotechnology 185
Agricultural research and the world food problem 186
9 Biomedical research and development 189
Introduction 189
History 189
Biomedical r&d defined 189
Analysis of US investment in health r&d 190
Sources of funds 190
Conduct of research 191
Federal government role 191
National Institutes of Health 192
Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration 198
Food and Drug Administration 199
Centers for Disease Control 200
Biomedical research in other federal agencyes 200
Medical schools and hospitals 204
International biomedical research and development 205
Industry involvement in biomedical r&d 206
Industry and biotechnology 206
10 Energy science and technology 209
Background 209
Organization of federal energy r&d 212
Current programmes of the Department of Energy 213
Solar and other renewables 213
Nuclear energy 217
Magnetic fusion 217
Fossil energy r&d 218
Energy conservation 218
Other r&d areas 218
National laboratories 219
Energy r&d in other federal agencies 220
The synthetic Fuels Corporation 220
Energy r&d in Industry 221
Issues and outlook 222
11 Environmental science and technology 225
Introduction 225
The role of the federal government 226
The role of the Environmental Protection Agency 227
Other agencies 231
The expanding role of the private sector 236
Trends and issues 239
12 Aerospace science and technology 243
Space research from sputnik to the shuttle 243
Space research in NASA 245
Manned space exploration 245
Planetary/space science 245
Space applications 249
Industry-university ties 251
National space policy and plans for the future 252
Trends 253
Aeronautical research 254
Role of NACA/NASA 255
Recent policy decisions 258
13 Defence science and technology 261
Overview: defence r&d in perspective 261
The US military establishment 261
The importance of r&d to defence policy 262
Historical development of defence r&d 263
Difficulties and limitations of analyzing defence r&d 263
Major features of defence r&d programmes 264
Statistical overview 264
Examples of defence r&d programmes 266
The strategic Defence Initiative: a special note 270
The defence r&d establishment 271
DOD in-house laboratories 271
The defence Industry 275
DOD and the universities 276
DOD contract research centers 277
Issues and questions 278
Increasing costs 278
R&D and defence policy 278
Defence r&d and the science community 279
Arms control and r&d 279
14 Basic research in the physical sciences, mathematics, and engineering 281
Overview 281
Physics 283
Astronomy 286
Chemistry 289
Materials science 291
Oceanographic and atmospheric sciences 292
Mathematics and computer research 294
Engineering research 297
15 The social and behavioural sciences 301
Relative newcomers 301
Government support disputed 303
The federal role 303
Federal funding for social and behavioural science research 1980-82 303
Major agencies 305
Universities 309
Social and behavioural science organizations 312
Trends and issues 312
16 Associations, societies and academies in science, engineering and higher education 317
Historical development of professional societies in the United States 317
The National Academies and associated organizations 318
Overview 318
National Academy of Sciences 319
National Academy of Engineering 319
Institute of Medicine 320
National Research Council 320
Joint activities of the Academies 321
General scientific and engineering associations 321
American Association for the Advancement of Science 321
American Association of Engineering Societies 323
Social Science Research Council 324
State academies of science 324
Disciplinary societies 325
American Chemical Society 326
American Psychological Association 326
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 326
National Society of Professional Engineers 327
Higher education organizations 327
Association of American Universities 328
National Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges 328
American Association of State Colleges and Universities 328
Association of American Medical Colleges 329
Other organizations 329
Recent developments 330
17 International cooperation in science and technology 333
Overview 333
International agreements and organizations 334
Multilateral agreements 335
Bilateral agreements 335
International organizations 337
Institutional structure of US involvement 338
Governmental organizations 338
Non-governmental organizations 340
International fellowship and training programmes 340
NSF programmes 341
Other programmes 341
Specialized science and technology programmes 342
Agriculture 342
Space activities 343
Energy 344
Telecommunications 344
Other areas 346
Controls on the export of technical data and commodities 346
Statutory authorities 347
Case study: export controls on biotechnology 348
Trends in international cooperation in science and technology 349
18 Scientific and technical information 351
Overview 351
Scientific and technical publications 352
Databases 354
Issues 356
Appendix 1: Sources of information on US science and technology 359
Appendix 2: Federal research establishments 365
Index of establishments 383
Subject Index 396