SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE USAPDF电子书下载

1 Demographic, economic and political overview 1

Demography 1

Economy 3

Government and politics 7

Federal government 8

State and local government 14

Political parties and elections 15

2 Organization, development and finance of US science and technology 17

Science and technology in US society 17

Development of US science and technology 18

From colonial days to World War II 18

From World War II to the present 20

Support and performance of r&d in the US 22

Industry 24

Government 25

Universities and colleges 26

Nonprofit institutions and state and local governments 26

Trends in funding 27

Scientific and engineering personnel 29

3 Policymaking for science and technology 35

Overview 35

The role of the Executive Branch 36

Office of Management and Budget 37

Office of Science and Technology Policy 38

Agencies of the Executive Branch 38

The role of Congress 39

Forms of Congressional influence 39

Congressional organization for science and technology 40

The role of non government institutions in science and technology policy 42

Science and technology policy in the 1980s: recent trends and issues 45

Shifting political winds 45

The federal budget situation 46

Growing interest in high technology 46

Technology transfer and information control 47

4 Government science and technology 49

Overview 49

Department of Defense 52

Background 52

Purpose and organization 53

Major r&d elements 55

DOD basic research 58

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 58

Space science and applications 59

Space station 60

Space transportation 60

Aeronautical research and technology 60

Space tracking and data systems 61

Field installations 61

Department of Energy 63

Background 63

Overall organization 63

Field structure 64

Headquarters organization 64

Multiprogramme national laboratories 66

Other DOE r&d facilities 69

Department of Health and Human Services 70

Introduction 70

National Institutes of Health (NIH) 70

Issues affecting NIH 76

Other parts of the Public Health Service 77

Other units of the Department of Health and Human Services 79

National Science Foundation 80

Overview 80

Organization 81

Mathematical and Physical Sciences (MPS) 83

Engineering 85

Biological, Behavioural and Social Sciences (BBS) 86

Astronomical, Atmospheric, Earth and Ocean Sciences (AAEO) 86

Other programmes 86

Department of Agriculture 86

Agricultural Research Service (ARS) 87

Cooperative State Research Service (CSRS) 88

Forest Service 89

Other programmes 89

Department of the Interior 90

US Geological Survey 90

Fish and Wildlife Service 92

Bureau of Mines 92

Bureau of Reclamation 93

Other programmes 93

Department of Transportation 94

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) 94

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) 95

Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA) 95

Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) 95

Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) 96

Other programmes 96

Environmental Protection Agency 96

Organizational overview 96

Acid rain research 99

Toxic substances 100

Pesticides 100

Hazardous wastes 100

Air research 100

Water quality and drinking water 101

Interdisciplinary/intermedia programme 101

Department of Commerce 101

Economic, statistical and related bureaux 102

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 103

National Bureau of Standards (NBS) 104

Department of Education 106

National Institute of Education (NIE) 106

National Institute of Handicapped Research (NIHR) 107

Other programmes 108

Science and technology in other agencyes 108

Agency for international Development (AID) 108

Smithsonian Institution 109

US Army Corps of Engineers 109

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) 110

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) 110

Nuclear Regulatory Commission(NRC) 110

Department of Labor 111

Department of Justice 111

Department of Housing and Urban Development 111

Department of the Treasury 111

Veterans Administration 112

5 Higher education and academic science 113

Research and higher education 113

Types of institutions 113

Research and the federal government 114

Organizational structures and research 114

R&D at universities and colleges: facts and figures 116

Total expenditure 116

Sources of funding 116

Character of work and support mechanisms 120

Fields of research 122

Instrumentation and facilities 122

Undergraduate and graduate education 124

Undergraduate and education 124

Graduate education in science and engineering 125

Foreign students 126

Women and disadvantaged minorities 127

Student financial assistance 130

College and university faculty members 131

The role of organized research units 134

Relations between the federal government and colleges and universities 135

Issues 136

Institutional versus project support 136

Peer review 137

Accountability 139

Funding instruments 139

Facilitating organizations 140

University-industry relations 141

6 Industrial research and development 145

Overview: the role of Industry in r&d 145

Company funded and federally funded r&d 145

Statistical profile of Industrial r&d 146

Basic research in Industry 151

Statistical overview 151

The role of key firms 152

Influences on Industrial r&d 154

Relationship of Industry and government r&d 155

Industrial cooperation 156

R&D in large and small firms 156

R&D as an Industry 158

International issues for US Industry 158

Conclusion 160

7 Research and development in nonprofit institutions 163

The nonprofit sector 163

Nonprofit research institutes 165

FFRDCs 167

Foundations 168

Other institutions 172

Voluntary hospitals 172

Scientific/technical societies and academies of science 173

Nonprofit scientific exhibitors 173

Others 173

8 Agricultural science and technology 175

Nature of agricultural r&d in the US 175

The federal role 177

USDA 177

Other federal agencies 180

8 Agricultural r&d in the private sector 180

Fertilizers and pesticides 181

Food processing 183

Issues 184

Quality of research and scientific manpower 184

Biotechnology 185

Agricultural research and the world food problem 186

9 Biomedical research and development 189

Introduction 189

History 189

Biomedical r&d defined 189

Analysis of US investment in health r&d 190

Sources of funds 190

Conduct of research 191

Federal government role 191

National Institutes of Health 192

Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration 198

Food and Drug Administration 199

Centers for Disease Control 200

Biomedical research in other federal agencyes 200

Medical schools and hospitals 204

International biomedical research and development 205

Industry involvement in biomedical r&d 206

Industry and biotechnology 206

10 Energy science and technology 209

Background 209

Organization of federal energy r&d 212

Current programmes of the Department of Energy 213

Solar and other renewables 213

Nuclear energy 217

Magnetic fusion 217

Fossil energy r&d 218

Energy conservation 218

Other r&d areas 218

National laboratories 219

Energy r&d in other federal agencies 220

The synthetic Fuels Corporation 220

Energy r&d in Industry 221

Issues and outlook 222

11 Environmental science and technology 225

Introduction 225

The role of the federal government 226

The role of the Environmental Protection Agency 227

Other agencies 231

The expanding role of the private sector 236

Trends and issues 239

12 Aerospace science and technology 243

Space research from sputnik to the shuttle 243

Space research in NASA 245

Manned space exploration 245

Planetary/space science 245

Space applications 249

Industry-university ties 251

National space policy and plans for the future 252

Trends 253

Aeronautical research 254

Role of NACA/NASA 255

Recent policy decisions 258

13 Defence science and technology 261

Overview: defence r&d in perspective 261

The US military establishment 261

The importance of r&d to defence policy 262

Historical development of defence r&d 263

Difficulties and limitations of analyzing defence r&d 263

Major features of defence r&d programmes 264

Statistical overview 264

Examples of defence r&d programmes 266

The strategic Defence Initiative: a special note 270

The defence r&d establishment 271

DOD in-house laboratories 271

The defence Industry 275

DOD and the universities 276

DOD contract research centers 277

Issues and questions 278

Increasing costs 278

R&D and defence policy 278

Defence r&d and the science community 279

Arms control and r&d 279

14 Basic research in the physical sciences, mathematics, and engineering 281

Overview 281

Physics 283

Astronomy 286

Chemistry 289

Materials science 291

Oceanographic and atmospheric sciences 292

Mathematics and computer research 294

Engineering research 297

15 The social and behavioural sciences 301

Relative newcomers 301

Government support disputed 303

The federal role 303

Federal funding for social and behavioural science research 1980-82 303

Major agencies 305

Universities 309

Social and behavioural science organizations 312

Trends and issues 312

16 Associations, societies and academies in science, engineering and higher education 317

Historical development of professional societies in the United States 317

The National Academies and associated organizations 318

Overview 318

National Academy of Sciences 319

National Academy of Engineering 319

Institute of Medicine 320

National Research Council 320

Joint activities of the Academies 321

General scientific and engineering associations 321

American Association for the Advancement of Science 321

American Association of Engineering Societies 323

Social Science Research Council 324

State academies of science 324

Disciplinary societies 325

American Chemical Society 326

American Psychological Association 326

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 326

National Society of Professional Engineers 327

Higher education organizations 327

Association of American Universities 328

National Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges 328

American Association of State Colleges and Universities 328

Association of American Medical Colleges 329

Other organizations 329

Recent developments 330

17 International cooperation in science and technology 333

Overview 333

International agreements and organizations 334

Multilateral agreements 335

Bilateral agreements 335

International organizations 337

Institutional structure of US involvement 338

Governmental organizations 338

Non-governmental organizations 340

International fellowship and training programmes 340

NSF programmes 341

Other programmes 341

Specialized science and technology programmes 342

Agriculture 342

Space activities 343

Energy 344

Telecommunications 344

Other areas 346

Controls on the export of technical data and commodities 346

Statutory authorities 347

Case study: export controls on biotechnology 348

Trends in international cooperation in science and technology 349

18 Scientific and technical information 351

Overview 351

Scientific and technical publications 352

Databases 354

Issues 356

Appendix 1: Sources of information on US science and technology 359

Appendix 2: Federal research establishments 365

Index of establishments 383

Subject Index 396