1: Introduction 1
Ⅰ The Law of Obligations 1
Ⅱ The Law of Damages 3
Ⅲ Desirability of a Harmonised Measure of Damages 7
Ⅳ Possibility of a Harmonised Measure of Damages 9
Ⅴ The Methodology Adopted in this Book 12
Part 1: Remoteness of Damage 15
2: The Present Remoteness Test in Tort 17
Ⅰ Terminology 17
Ⅱ The Foreseeability Criterion in Negligence 17
Ⅲ Damage Versus Risk 20
Ⅳ Degree of Foresight Required 25
Ⅴ The 'Thin Skull' Rule 27
Ⅵ The 'Scope of the Duty' Concept 30
Ⅶ Torts other than Negligence 34
3: The Present Remoteness Test in Contract 37
Ⅰ Hadley v Baxendale 37
Ⅱ Victoria Laundry 38
Ⅲ The Heron II 39
Ⅳ Parsons 40
Ⅴ SAAMCO 41
Ⅵ Brown v KMR Services Ltd 42
Ⅶ Jackson v Royal Bank of Scotland plc 43
Ⅷ The Achilleas 44
Ⅸ Conclusion 47
4: A Uniform Remoteness Test throughout the Common Law 53
Ⅰ Contract and Tort Compared 53
Ⅱ Reforming both Contract and Tort 54
Ⅲ Reforming Tort Only 56
Ⅳ Aligning Contract with Tort 57
A The Fairness Argument 57
B The Efficiency Argument 60
C Objections to the Efficiency Argument 63
i Prohibitive Costs 63
ii Monopoly Situations 63
iii Strategic Dilemma for Reliable Carriers 64
iv Possibility of Menu 65
D Preventing Unreasonable Reliance upon Performance 65
E Contractual Liability is Generally Strict 67
F Conclusion 68
5: Remoteness of Damage in Equity 70
Ⅰ Misapplication of Trust Property 70
Ⅱ Breach of an Equitable Duty of Care and Skill 73
Ⅲ Breach of Fiduciary Duty 75
Part 2: Non-Pecuniary Loss 81
6: Non-Pecuniary Loss in Tort 83
Ⅰ Loss Resulting from Personal Injury 84
Ⅱ Physical Inconvenience or Discomfort 85
Ⅲ Loss of Reputation 85
Ⅳ Mental Distress 87
Ⅴ Bereavement 89
7: Non-Pecuniary Loss in Contract 90
Ⅰ Overview of the Present Law 90
Ⅱ The General Bar to Compensation 90
Ⅲ The Exception for Personal Injury 93
Ⅳ The Exception for Physical Inconvenience 93
Ⅴ The 'Object of the Contract' Exception 95
Ⅵ Loss of Reputation 100
Ⅶ Need for Reform 103
Ⅷ Defensibility of the General Bar to Compensation 104
A Avoiding Punishment 104
B Avoiding Excessive Awards 105
C General Remoteness of Non-Pecuniary Loss 106
D Assumption of Risk 107
E Difficult Assessment 107
F Lower Cost of Contracting 109
G Avoiding a Flood of Claims 110
H Avoiding Bogus Claims 113
Ⅸ Way of Reform 114
8: Non-Pecuniary Loss in Equity 117
Ⅰ Breach of Confidence in Its Core Meaning 117
Ⅱ Breach of Confidence in Its Extended Meaning ('Breach of Privacy') 119
Ⅲ Other Equitable Wrongs 123
Part 3: Contributory Negligence 127
9: Contributory Negligence in Tort 129
Ⅰ The Position Apart From the1945 Act 129
Ⅱ The Ambit of the 1945 Act 131
Ⅲ Causation 135
Ⅳ The Claimant's Fault 137
Ⅴ Damage 138
Ⅵ Apportionment 141
10: Contributory Negligence in Contract 145
Ⅰ The Position apart from the 1945 Act 145
Ⅱ The Impact of the 1945 Act—Overview 146
Ⅲ Breach of a Duty of Care Co-Extensive in Contract and Tort 148
Ⅳ Breach of a Purely Contractual Duty of Care 151
Ⅴ Strict Contractual Liability—The Present Law 153
Ⅵ Need for Apportionment in Cases of Strict Liability 155
A Resorting to Causation Doctrine 156
B Resorting to Remoteness Doctrine 158
C Resorting to Mitigation Doctrine 159
Ⅶ Defensibility of Denying Apportionment in Cases of Strict Liability 162
A No Duty to Supervise the Defendant 162
B Distribution of Blame is Difficult 164
C Uncertainty 165
D Inequalities of Bargaining Power 166
Ⅷ Way of Reform 167
11: Contributory Negligence in Equity 169
Part 4: Gain-Based Relief 175
12: The Present Law of 'Restitution for Wrongs' 177
Ⅰ Terminology 177
Ⅱ The Inclusion of Hypothetical-Fee Awards 179
Ⅲ Equity 182
A Breach of Fiduciary Duty 182
B Breach of Confidence Including Breach of Privacy 185
Ⅳ Tort 188
A Historical Development 188
B Wrongful Interference with Goods 190
C Trespass to Land 191
D Intellectual Property Wrongs 194
E Nuisance 197
F Deceit and Fraud 200
Ⅴ Contract 203
A Hypothetical-Fee Award ('Wrotham Park Damages') 203
B Account of Profits ('Blake Damages') 206
13: The Proper Scope of 'Restitution for Wrongs' 209
Ⅰ Existing Theories 209
A Birks 210
B Edelman 210
C Friedmann 211
D Jackman 212
E Jaffey 212
F Tettenborn 213
G Weinrib 213
H Worthington 214
Ⅱ The Significance of Exclusive Entitlements 215
Ⅲ Exclusive Entitlements Erga Omnes 218
A Tangible and Intangible Property 219
B Bodily Integrity 222
C Reputation 223
D Informational Rights 224
Ⅳ Exclusive Entitlements Inter Partes 226
A Contractual Right to Have Property Transferred 227
i Land and Intangible Property 227
ii Specific Chattel 229
iii Generic Goods 231
B Contractual Right to Be Treated As the Owner of Certain Property 233
C Contractual Right to Someone Else's 'Labour Power'? 235
D Right to the Loyalty of One's Fiduciary 237
Ⅴ Situations in Which 'Restitution for Wrongs' is Inappropriate 239
A Deceit 239
B Skimped Contractual Performance 240
Ⅵ Exclusive-Entitlement Theory and Present Law Compared 242
Part 5: Exemplary Damages 245
14: The Present Law of Exemplary Damages 247
Ⅰ Terminology 247
Ⅱ Rookes v Barnard 248
Ⅲ Abuse of Power by Civil Servants 250
A Conduct Required 250
B Status of the Defendant 252
C Criticism 253
Ⅳ Profit-Seeking Behaviour 254
A Fields of Application 255
B Criticism 256
Ⅴ Statutory Authorisation 257
Ⅵ The 'Cause of Action' Test 259
Ⅶ Exemplary Damages in Contract 260
Ⅷ Exemplary Damages in Equity 261
Ⅸ Need for Reform 263
15: Objective of Exemplary Damages 264
Ⅰ Penalising Reprehensible Behaviour 264
Ⅱ Fostering Efficient Deterrence 265
A Correction for Undercompensation 265
B Correction for Underenforcement 267
C Correction for Court Errors 269
D Offsetting Illicit Benefits and Exceptional Costs 271
E Encouraging Negotiations about the Use of Rights 272
F Conclusion 272
16: Defensibility of Confining Exemplary Damages to Tort 273
Ⅰ Defensibility of Banning Exemplary Damages from Contract 273
A Theory of Efficient Breach 273
B Objections to the Theory of Efficient Breach 274
C Relevance of the Theory of Efficient Breach 276
D Inducement of Breach 277
E Cost of Contracting 277
F Crucial Differences between Contract and Tort 278
G Conclusion 280
Ⅱ Defensibility of Banning Exemplary Damages from Equity 280
A Is Punishment a Traditional Objective of Equity? 281
B Should Exemplary Damages be Available in Equity? 282