PART Ⅰ FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF INTERNATIONAL CRIMES AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE 1
Chapter 1 Fundamentals of International Criminal Law 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Sources of International Law and Individual Legal Personality 4
1.3 The International Criminalisation Process 8
1.4 Enforcement of International Criminal Law 12
1.5 State Criminality 16
1.6 International Criminal Law and Human Rights 19
1.7 The Principle of Legality 21
1.7.1 Specificity 21
1.7.2 Non-Retroactivity 23
1.7.3 Prohibition of Analogy 26
1.7.4 The Favor Rei Rule 27
1.8 Statutes of Limitation for International Crimes 28
1.9 Justificatory Bases for International Trials and the Quest for Legitimacy 29
1.10 Lawfare: International Law as a Weapon for the 'Weak' 32
Chapter 2 The Subjective and Objective Elements of International Crimes 35
2.1 General Principles of the Objective Element 35
2.2 General Principles of the Subjective Element 38
2.3 Intent or Dolus 40
2.4 Recklessness and Dolus Eventualis 43
2.5 Negligence 45
2.6 Special Intent 47
2.7 The Principle of Transferred Fault and of Mistaken Object 49
Chapter 3 Modes of Liability and Criminal Participation 51
3.1 The Legal Nature of Perpetration and Participation 51
3.2 Joint Criminal Enterprise 53
3.3 Commission through Another Person or Indirect Perpetration 59
3.4 Co-Perpetration 60
3.5 Conspiracy 63
3.6 Attempts 66
3.7 Aiding and Abetting 67
3.8 Ordering 70
3.9 Planning and Preparation 73
3.10 Instigation 74
3.11 International Corporate Criminal Liability 76
Chapter 4 The Law of Command Responsibility 79
4.1 The Legal Nature of Command Responsibility 79
4.2 The Superior-Subordinate Relationship 82
4.3 The Position of Civilian Commanders 86
4.4 The Mental Element 88
4.5 The Duty to Prevent or Punish 93
4.6 The Question of Successor Superior Responsibility 95
PART Ⅱ DEFENCES AND EXCUSES FROM CRIMINAL LIABILITY 97
Chapter 5 Defences in International Criminal Law 99
5.1 Theoretical Underpinnings of Criminal Defences 99
5.2 Is there a Place for Domestic Defences in the ICC Statute? 102
5.3 Superior Orders 104
5.4 Duress and Necessity 108
5.5 Self-Defence 112
5.6 Intoxication 114
5.7 Mistake of Fact or Mistake of Law 115
5.8 Ignorance of Law 116
5.9 Mental Incapacity 119
5.10 Tu Quoque 121
Chapter 6 Immunities from Criminal Jurisdiction 122
6.1 General Conception of Immunity in International Law 122
6.2 Act of State Doctrine 125
6.3 Immunity from Criminal Jurisdiction 127
6.3.1 The Application of Functional and Personal Immunity in Practice 128
6.4 Diplomatic and Consular Immunities 131
6.5 Immunity from International Criminal Jurisdiction 133
PART Ⅲ SUBSTANTIVE CRIMES 135
Chapter 7 War Crimes and Grave Breaches 137
7.1 Grave Breaches of the 1949 Geneva Conventions 137
7.1.1 Classification of Armed Conflicts 140
7.1.2 Types of War Crimes in International Armed Conflicts 141
7.2 War Crimes against Protected Persons and of Property in the Hands of the Adversary 143
7.2.1 Wilful Killing 143
7.2.2 Torture as a War Crime 144
7.2.3 Inhuman and Cruel Treatment 145
7.2.4 Biological Experiments 146
7.2.5 Wilfully Causing Great Suffering or Serious Injury 147
7.2.6 Extensive Destruction and Appropriation of Property 148
7.2.7 Pillage 149
7.2.8 Compelling Prisoners of War or Protected Persons to Serve with the Hostile Power 150
7.2.9 Wilfully Depriving Protected Persons of Rights to Fair and Regular Trial 151
7.2.10 Unlawful Deportation or Transfer of Protected Persons 152
7.2.11 Transferring Own Population into Occupied Territory 153
7.2.12 Unlawful Confinement 154
7.2.13 Taking of Hostages 155
7.2.14 War Crime of Depriving the Nationals of the Hostile Party of Rights or Actions 156
7.2.15 Using, Conscripting or Enlisting Children 156
7.3 Sexual Crimes 159
7.3.1 Outrages upon Personal Dignity 159
7.3.2 Rape and Sexual Violence 160
7.3.3 Sexual Slavery 163
7.3.4 Enforced Prostitution 164
7.3.5 Forced Pregnancy 165
7.3.6 Enforced Sterilisation 165
7.4 Prohibited Targeting Crimes 166
7.5 War Crimes against Combatants and Hors de Combat 173
7.6 War Crimes related to the Use of Illegal or Prohibited Weapons 175
7.7 Violations of the Laws or Customs of War in Internal Armed Conflicts 178
7.7.1 Specific Internal Armed Conflict War Crimes 181
7.7.2 The War Crime of Inflicting Collective Punishments 183
Chapter 8 Crimes Against Humanity 185
8.1 Origins of the Concept 185
8.2 The Fundamental Elements of the Offence and the Meaning of 'Attack' 188
8.2.1 The Underlying Offences 190
8.3 The Widespread or Systematic Element 196
8.4 The Nature of the Targeted 'Civilian Population' 198
8.5 The Subjective Element 200
8.6 Crimes Against Humanity in the ICC Statute 201
Chapter 9 The Crime of Genocide 203
9.1 Early Perceptions and the Duties of States to Prevent and Punish Genocide 203
9.2 Destruction of the Group 'in Whole or in Part' 206
9.3 The Specific Intent {Dolus Specialis) Required for Genocide 208
9.4 Membership of the Targeted Group 212
9.5 Acts Constituting Genocide 215
9.6 The Problematic Nature of Aiding and Abetting Genocide 217
9.7 Incitement to Commit Genocide 219
Chapter 10 Offences Against the Person 222
10.1 Introduction 222
10.2 Slavery and Related Practices 222
10.2.1 The Slave Trade and Similar Institutions 224
10.3 Torture as a Crime under International Law 230
10.3.1 Defining Torture 231
10.3.2 The 'Public Official' Requirement of Torture 234
10.4 Apartheid 235
10.5 Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances 237
Chapter 11 Transnational Crimes 240
11.1 Introduction 240
11.2 Transnational Organised Crime 241
11.2.1 Additional CATOC Protocols: Migrant Smuggling and Illicit Traffic in Firearms 244
11.3 Money Laundering 246
11.4 Drug-Trafficking as a Crime under International Law 249
11.5 Bribery of Foreign Public Officials 252
11.6 International Postal Offences 257
Chapter 12 Terrorism 260
12.1 Introduction 260
12.2 The Thematic Evolution of Terrorism in International Law 263
12.3 The Specialised Anti-Terrorist Conventions 264
12.3.1 Offences Against Civil Aviation 264
12.3.2 Hostage Taking and Attacks Against Internationally Protected Persons 270
12.3.3 Terrorist Bombings and Nuclear Terrorism 272
12.3.4 Terrorist Financing and Security Council Resolution 1373 (2001) 275
12.4 State-Sponsored Terrorism 279
12.5 Terrorism and National Liberation Movements 281
12.6 Organised Crime and its Relation to Terrorism 284
Chapter 13 The Crime of Aggression 287
13.1 Introduction 287
13.2 Aggression under Customary Law 288
13.3 Aggression in the ICC Statute 291
Chapter 14 International Criminal Law of the Sea 295
14.1 Brief Introduction to the Law of the Sea 295
14.2 Piracy Jure Gentium 297
14.2.1 Definition of Piracy under International Law and its Difference from Armed Robbery at Sea 298
14.2.2 Mutiny and other Violence against Ships not amounting to Piracy 302
14.2.3 Mechanisms for the Prevention and Eradication of Piracy 303
14.3 Maritime Terrorism 305
14.4 Offences Against Submarine Cables and Pipelines 307
14.5 Unauthorised Broadcasting from the High Seas 310
14.6 Ship-Source Pollution 312
14.7 Criminal Liability for Fisheries-related Violations on the High Seas 314
14.8 Enforcement on the High Seas 316
14.9 The Right of Hot Pursuit 321
14.9.1 Commencement and Continuous Nature of Hot Pursuit 323
14.9.2 The Doctrine of Constructive Presence 324
PART Ⅳ ENFORCEMENT OF INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW 327
Chapter 15 The Exercise of Criminal Jurisdiction 329
15.1 International Law Principles on Criminal Jurisdiction 329
15.2 Territorial Jurisdiction 332
15.2.1 Subjective Territoriality 333
15.2.2 Objective Territoriality 335
15.2.3 The Ambit of National Territory 336
15.3 The Active Personality Principle 338
15.4 The Passive Personality Principle 340
15.5 The Protective Principle 342
15.6 Universal Jurisdiction 344
15.7 Jurisdiction with Respect to Crimes Against Civil Aviation 349
15.8 Foreign and Multinational Armed Forces Abroad 350
15.9 International Criminal Jurisdiction 352
Chapter 16 International Cooperation in Criminal Matters 355
16.1 Introduction 355
16.2 Mutual Legal Assistance Stricto Sensu 355
16.3 Informal Assistance Arrangements 361
16.4 Recognition of Foreign Penal Judgments: The Principle of Mutual Recognition 362
16.5 International Prisoner Transfers 363
16.6 Horizontal and Vertical Cooperation between States and International Organisations 366
16.6.1 Cooperation under the ICTY/ICTR Regime 367
16.6.2 The Vertical Regime of the ICC 370
16.6.3 Cooperation under the Statutes of Hybrid Tribunals 372
16.7 International Tribunal Requests to International Organisations and Preservation of Confidentiality 372
16.8 Extradition 373
16.8.1 Human Rights and Diplomatic Assurances 376
16.8.2 The Principle of 'Either Prosecute or Extradite' 378
16.8.3 The European Arrest Warrant 379
16.9 The Effects of Extraterritorial Abduction and Illegal Rendition on Criminal Proceedings 380
Chapter 17 The Nuremberg and Tokyo Tribunals and the Origins of International Criminal Justice 384
17.1 The Historical Origins of International Criminality 384
17.2 The Background to the Establishment of the International Military Tribunals 388
17.2.1 The Law and Jurisdiction of the International Military Tribunal (IMT) at Nuremberg 389
17.3 The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE) 397
17.4 The International Law Commission's Role in the Post-Nuremberg Era 400
Chapter 18 The International Criminal Tribunals for Yugoslavia and Rwanda 403
18.1 Introduction 403
18.2 Formative Years of the Ad Hoc Tribunals 406
18.3 Jurisdiction of the ICTY and ICTR 412
18.4 Enforcement Capacity of the Tribunals 414
18.5 Rights of the Accused and Abuse of Process 417
18.6 Dissolution of the Tribunals and their Completion Strategy 421
Chapter 19 The Permanent International Criminal Court 423
19.1 Introduction 423
19.2 Jurisdiction and the ICC Triggering Mechanism 426
19.3 The Principle of Complementarity and Security Council Referrals 429
19.4 Deferrals by the Security Council and Deferrals in 'the Interests of Justice' 432
19.5 Subject Matter Jurisdiction 435
19.6 International Cooperation and Judicial Assistance 436
19.7 Impunity Agreements in Contravention of Article 98 ICC Statute 439
19.8 Reservations and Amendments to the Statute 440
19.9 Reparation of Victims and the ICC Trust Fund 441
Chapter 20 Internationalised Domestic Criminal Tribunals, Truth Commissions and Amnesties 444
20.1 Introduction 444
20.2 The Sierra Leone Special Court 445
20.2.1 The Fate of Amnesties and Immunities 448
20.3 The East Timor Special Panels 450
20.4 UNMIK and the Kosovar Judicial System 453
20.5 The Cambodian Extraordinary Chambers 455
20.6 The Iraqi Special Tribunal for Crimes Against Humanity 458
20.7 Terrorist-related Tribunals 461
20.7.1 The Lockerbie Tribunal 461
20.7.2 The Special Tribunal for Lebanon 464
20.8 National Truth Commissions and Amnesties 467
PART Ⅴ EVIDENCE AND INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL PROCEDURE 471
Chapter 21 Evidence before International Criminal Courts and Tribunals&By Caroline Buisman 473
21.1 Introduction 473
21.2 General Evidentiary Principles 477
21.3 Admissibility 480
21.3.1 Rules and Principles of Admissibility 480
21.3.2 Relevant Definitions of Rule 89(C) Terminology 483
21.3.2.1 Relevance 483
21.3.2.2 Probative Value 484
21.3.2.3 Probative Value Versus Prejudice 485
21.3.2.4 Reliability 486
21.4 Principle of Orality 487
21.4.1 Admissibility of Written Statements in lieu of Oral Testimony 491
21.4.2 Further Steps to Admit Written Statements in lieu of Oral Testimony 494
21.4.3 Prior Inconsistent Statements 498
21.4.4 Admissibility of Suspect Interviews 500
21.4.5 Admissibility of Suspect Interviews Against a Co-Accused 500
21.5 Documentary Evidence 503
21.6 Hearsay Evidence 508
21.7 The Investigator's Report 512
21.8 Expert Evidence 514
21.9 Character Evidence 522
21.10 Exclusion of Improperly Obtained Evidence 524
21.11 Determination of Weight of Evidence 531
21.11.1 General Principles 531
21.11.2 Corroboration 534
21.11.3 Documentary Evidence 536
21.11.4 Hearsay Evidence 538
21.11.5 Viva Voce Testimony 540
21.11.6 Prior Statements 543
21.11.7 Expert Evidence 544
21.12 Free System of Proof 545
Chapter 22 The Status of Victims in International Criminal Law and Criminal Proceedings 548
22.1 The Legal Protection of Victims in International Law 548
22.2 The Physical Protection of Victims of International Crimes 550
22.2.1 'Victims' of No Crimes at All! 553
22.3 Forms of Reparation 556
22.4 Victim Participation in International Criminal Proceedings 557
22.4.1 The ICC 558
22.4.2 The Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC) 561
Index 565