PART I THE NATURE AND FUNCTION OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 1
1 The Development of International Law 7
The Middle Ages 7
The Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries 8
The Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries 9
Early Writers on International Law 11
The Nineteenth Century 12
2 Nature and Foundation of International Law 15
The Need for Law 15
Law and Politics 16
Is International Law “Real” Law？ 17
The Foundation of International Law 18
States and the Foundation of International Law 20
Why Do States Obey International Law？ 21
3 International and Other Law 23
Types of Law 23
The Monist and Dualist Views 24
State Practice Regarding Different Types of Law 25
The Practice of International Tribunals 26
Relationship between Municipal Laws of Different States 27
4 The Creation of International Law： Methods and Principles 33
The Origin 33
Treaties 36
Custom 38
General Principles of Law 41
Equity 42
5 The Creation of International Law： Men and Institutions 47
States 47
International Organizations 48
Legal Agencies 51
Individuals 52
Courts 53
References and Readings for Part 1 55
Sociology of Law 55
New States 55
Changing International Society 56
Politics， Power， and Law 57
Theories of Law 58
Binding Force of Law 58
Relations between International and Municipal Law 58
Conflict between International and Municipal Law 59
Sources of International Law： General 59
Sources of International Law： Treaties 59
Sources of International Law： Custom 60
Sources of International Law： General Principles 60
Sources of International Law： Equity 60
Sources of International Law： International Organizations 61
Sources of International Law： Individuals 62
Sources of International Law： Courts and Tribunals 62
PART 2 INTERNATIONAL LEGAL CAPACITY 63
6 Subjects of International Law 65
States 65
Recognition 67
Public International Organizations 69
Insurgents and Liberation Movements 71
Corporations 73
Multinational Corporations 74
Individuals 77
References and Readings for Part 2 81
States 81
Small States 82
Recognition 82
International Organizations 82
Insurgents and Liberation Movements 83
Corporations 83
Individuals 84
PART 3 INHERENT LEGAL QUALITIES OF SUBJECTS 85
7 The Status of States 87
Sovereignty 87
Equality 89
Nonintervention 91
Sovereign Immunity of States 95
The Trend Regarding Sovereignty 97
8 The Organs of Subjects and Their Protection 101
The Problem of Juridic Persons 101
Organs of States 102
Organs of International Organizations 104
Types of Protection 105
The Protected Entities 106
References and Readings for Part 3 111
Sovereignty 111
Equality 111
Nonintervention 112
Act of State 113
Organs of States 113
Organs of International Organizations 113
PART 4 THE JURISDICTION OF STATES 115
9 Temporal Jurisdiction 119
The Birth of States 119
The Identity or Continuity of States 120
The Death of States 122
The Principle of Succession of States 123
Types of Succession of States 125
10 Extent of Spatial Jurisdiction 129
Sovereignty and Spatial Jurisdiction 129
The Content of Spatial Jurisdiction 131
The Frontiers of Territorial Jurisdiction 135
The Frontiers of Air and Outer Space Jurisdiction 136
Jurisdiction over Territorial Waters 137
Jurisdiction in Special Zones 141
The Jurisdictional Frontiers of the Continental Shelf 142
The Jurisdictional Frontiers in the High Seas 143
Jurisdiction over Polar Regions 144
11 Acquisition and Loss of Spatial Sovereignty and Jurisdiction 145
Original Sovereignty and Jurisdiction 145
Acquisition of Territory through Natural Events 145
Occupation 146
Prescription 147
Cession 147
Subjugation or Conquest 147
Treaty 148
Loss of Sovereignty and Jurisdiction 148
12 Acquisition and Loss of Personal Jurisdiction 149
The Meaning of Personal Jurisdiction 149
Acquisition of Personal Jurisdiction 150
Loss of Personal Jurisdiction 151
Personal Jurisdiction over Juridic Persons 152
13 Material Jurisdiction of States 153
Meaning 153
The Limit of Material Jurisdiction 154
The Protective Principle 156
Universal Material Jurisdiction 157
References and Readings for Part 4 161
Jurisdiction and Sovereignty 161
Birth and Death of States 161
Succession 162
Spatial Jurisdiction： General 162
Protection of Environment 162
Land Frontiers 164
Frontiers in Airspace 164
Territorial Waters and Law of the Sea 165
Special Zones 166
Continental Shelf 166
High Seas 166
Arctic Regions 167
Acquisition and Loss of Spatial Jurisdiction 168
Acquisition and Loss of Personal Jurisdiction 168
Material Jurisdiction 168
Terrorism 169
PART 5 PERSONS IN INTERNATIONAL LAW 171
14 The Law of Aliens 175
Admission 175
The Standard of Treatment and Its Enforcement 177
Aliens as Subjects of Municipal Law 182
The Protection of an Alien’s Private Rights 183
The Special Case of Concessions 186
The Special Case of Nationalization 187
The Protection of an Alien’s Personal Rights 188
Extradition and Asylum 189
15 The International Law of Nationals 193
The National， the Forgotten Man 193
Beginnings of International Protection 193
Human Rights 194
Self-Determination of Peoples 197
References and Readings for Part 5 203
Individuals： General 203
Alien Natural and Juridic Persons： Diplomatic Protection 203
Denial of Justice 204
Aliens： Private Rights and Expropriation 204
Aliens： Government Contracts 205
Aliens： Nationalization of Property 205
Aliens： Personal Rights 205
Aliens： Extradition and Asylum 205
Nationals and Human Rights 206
Self-Determination and Neocolonialism 207
PART 6 INTERNATIONAL ACTIONS WITH LEGAL CONSEQUENCES 209
16 Unilateral Transactions 213
Nature of Transactions 213
Recognition 214
Notification 214
Declarations 214
Promises 214
Protest 215
Renunciation 215
Interdependent Unilateral Transactions 216
17 Multilateral Actions （Treaties） 217
Value of Treaties 217
The Nature of Treaties 218
Capacity and Authority to Conclude Treaties 219
Consent 221
Reservations， Amendments， Modifications 222
Object and Purpose 224
Entry into Force 224
Interpretation 225
Termination and Suspension of Treaties 228
Consequences of Invalidity， Termination， Suspension 230
18 Responsibility of Subjects 233
The Principle 233
Controversial Aspects of the Principle 234
The Forms of Injury 238
The Subjects and Objects of Responsibility 238
Responsibility for the Subject’s Organs 240
The Behavior Creating Responsibility 241
Responsibility for Private Persons 242
Conditions Excluding Responsibility 243
Amends 244
Procedure 245
Expanding and Contracting Claims 248
Responsibility of International Organizations 248
References and Readings for Part 6 251
General Principles 251
Unilateral Actions 251
Nature of Treaties 252
Capacity and Authority To Conclude Treaties 252
Consent to Treaties 253
Reservations to Treaties 253
Ius Cogens and Treaty Objects 253
Entry into Force of Treaties 254
Interpretation of Treaties 254
Suspension and Termination of Treaties 254
State Responsibility： General 255
Responsibility for Hazardous Action 255
Criminal Liability of States 255
Subjects and Objects of State Liability 256
State Responsibility for Treatment of Aliens 256
Responsibility of International Organizations 256
Special Responsibilities of States 256
PART 7 INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION 259
19 Political Cooperation 265
Cooperation as a Legal Obligation 265
Differing Views on the Law 266
20 Economic Cooperation 271
The Roots 271
Existing Law 272
The Future of Economic Cooperative Law 273
References and Readings for Part 7 279
Political Cooperation 279
Economic Cooperation 279
Economic Development 280
Economic Discrimination 281
PART 8 THE PACIFIC SETTLEMENT OF INTERNATIONAL DISPUTES 283
21 Applicability of Methods for Pacific Settlement 285
Political versus Legal Methods 285
What Are International Disputes？ 286
The Choice of Methods 288
22 Settlement Not Involving Decisions by Third Parties 291
Negotiation 291
Good Offices 292
Mediation 293
Enquiry 294
Conciliation 295
23 Settlement Involving Decisions by Third Parties 297
Arbitration 297
Adjudication 298
References and Readings for Part 8 303
Legal Character of Disputes 303
Settlement Not Involving Third-Party Decisions 303
Settlement Involving Third-Party Decisions 304
PART 9 THE USE OF FORCE 305
24 Conditions for the Legal Use of Force 311
Reprisal 311
Self-Defense 314
Self-Preservation 317
War 319
25 Regulation of the Application of Force 325
General Principles 325
Weapons and Methods 327
Use of Force Short of War 328
26 The Position of Third States Uninvolved in the Use of Force 329
In Peacetime 329
In Wartime 330
References and Readings for Part 9 335
Legality 335
Reprisal 335
Self-Defense 336
Aggression 336
War， Civil War， Liberation War 336
Humanizing War 337
New Weapons and Technology 338
Neutrality 338
PART 10 THE DYNAMIC CHARACTER OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 341
Appendix A Digest of Cases 347
The Paquete Habana； The Lola 347
The S.S.“Lotus 348
The Island of Palmas Case 350
Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations 351
The Corfu Channel Case 353
Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide 355
North Sea Continental Shelf Cases 357
Nuclear Test Case 361
Appendix B Cases Cited 363
Selected Bibliography 369
Index 373