1. The Context and Consequences of Theory 1
Theory in Social Context 3
Theory and Policy: Ideas Have Consequences 5
Context, Theory, and Policy: Plan of the Book 7
Inventing Criminology: Mainstream Theories 8
Social Turmoil and the Rise of Critical Theories 10
Criminological Theory in the Conservative Era 11
Criminological Theory in the 21st Century 12
Conclusion 13
2. The Search for the"Criminal Man" 15
Spiritualism 17
The Classical School: Criminal as Calculator 20
The Positivist School: Criminal as Determined 22
The Birth of the Positivist School: Lombroso'sTheory of the Criminal Man 23
Lombroso's Legacy: The Italian Criminological Tradition 25
The Continuing Search for the Individual Roots of Crime 29
The Consequence of Theory: Policy Implications 33
The Positivist School and the Control of the Biological Criminal 33
The Positivist School and Criminal Justice Reform 35
Conclusion 37
3. Rejecting Individualism: The Chicago School 39
The Chicago School of Criminology: Theory in Context 40
Shaw and McKay's Theory of Juvenile Delinquency 42
Burgess's Concentric Zone Theory 42
Disorganization and Delinquency 44
Transmission of Criminal Values 45
The Empirical Status of Social Disorganization Theory 45
Summary 46
Sutherland's Theory of Differential Association 47
Differential Social Organization 47
Differential Association 48
Theoretical Applications 49
The Chicago School's Criminological Legacy 50
Collective Efficacy 51
Cultural Deviance Theory 53
Akers's Social Learning Theory 56
The Consequences of Theory: Policy Implications 58
Change the Individual 58
Change the Community 58
Conclusion 59
4. Crime in American Society: Anomie and Strain Theories 61
Merton's Strain Theory 63
America as a Criminogenic Society 63
Strain Theory in Context 67
Status Discontent and Delinquency 69
Delinquent Boys 69
Delinquency and Opportunity 70
The Criminological Legacy of Strain Theory 72
Assessing Strain Theory 72
Agnew's General Strain Theory 74
Crime and the American Dream: Institutional-Anomie Theory 78
The Future of Strain Theory 82
The Consequences of Theory: Policy Implications 83
Expand Opportunities 83
Taming the American Dream 85
Conclusion 86
5. Society as Insulation: The Origins of Control Theory 88
Forerunners of Control Theory 90
Durkheim's Anomie Theory 90
The Influence of the Chicago School 92
Early Control Theories 93
Reiss's Theory of Personal and Social Controls 94
Nye's Family-Focused Theory of Social Controls 95
Reckless's Containment Theory 96
The Social Psychology of the Self 97
Pushes and Pulls 98
Factors in Outer Containment 99
Factors in Inner Containment 99
Summary 101
Sykes and Matza: Neutralization and Drift Theory 102
Techniques of Neutralization 103
Drift Theory 105
Control Theory in Context 106
The Context of the 1950s 106
The Context of the 1960s 107
6. The Complexity of Control: Hirschi's Two Theories and Beyond 109
Hirschi's First Theory: Social Bonds and Delinquency 110
Hirschi's Forerunners 111
Hirschi's Sociological Perspective 112
Why Social Control Matters 114
The Four Social Bonds 115
Assessing Social Bond Theory 119
Hirschi's Second Theory: Self-Control and Crime 121
Self-Control and Crime 121
Assessing Self-Control Theory 122
Self-Control and Social Bonds 125
Hirschi's Revised Social Control Theory 126
The Complexity of Control 128
Hagan's Power-Control Theory 129
Tittle's Control Balance Theory 130
Colvin's Differential Coercion Theory 133
The Consequences of Theory: Policy Implications 135
Conclusion 137
7. The Irony of State Intervention: Labeling Theory 139
The Social Construction of Crime 140
Labeling as Criminogenic: Creating Career Criminals 143
Early Statements of Labeling Theory 143
Labeling as a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 145
Assessing Labeling Theory 147
Labeling Theory in Context 152
The Consequences of Theory: Policy Implications 153
Decriminalization 153
Diversion 154
Due Process 155
Deinstitutionalization 156
Extending Labeling Theory 156
Braithwaite's Theory of Shaming and Crime 157
Sherman's Defiance Theory 158
Rose and Clear's Coerced Mobility Theory 159
Policy Implications: Restorative Justice and Prisoner Reentry 161
Conclusion 165
8. Social Power and the Construction of Crime: Conflict Theory 166
Forerunners of Conflict Theory 167
Marx and Engels: Capitalism and Crime 167
Simmel: Forms of Conflict 168
Bonger: Capitalism and Crime 169
Sutherland and Sellin: Culture Conflict and Crime 170
Void: Conflict and Crime 171
Theory in Context: The Turmoil of the 1960s 172
Varieties of Conflict Theory 173
Turk: The Criminalization Process 174
Chambliss: Crime, Power, and Legal Process 179
Quinney: Social Reality, Capitalism, and Crime 185
Conflict Theory and the Causes of Crime 192
Consequences of Conflict Theory 193
Marxist Approach 195
Peacemaking Criminology 197
Conclusion 198
9. New Directions in Critical Theory 199
Modernity and Postmodernity 200
Postmodern Criminological Thought: The End of Grand Narratives? 202
Looking Back at Early British and European Influences 204
Background: The New Criminology 204
Theoretical Arguments 205
Critique of the New Criminology 206
Early Left Realism 207
The Theory 207
Consequences of New Criminology/Left Realism 209
The New Criminology Revisited 210
Left Realism Today 213
The New European Criminology 217
Contributions and Context 217
Abolitionism 218
Consequences of Abolitionism 220
The Inportance of Other Voices: Jock Young 220
Cultural Criminology 221
Late Modernity and Globalization: Contextual Changes 221
Consequences of Cultural Criminology 223
Convict Criminology 226
Background: Primarily an American Contribution 226
Consequences of the "New School of Convict Criminology" 227
Conclusion 229
10. The Gendering of Criminology: Feminist Theory 230
Background 231
Prefeminist Pioneers and Themes 232
Cesare Lombroso 233
W. I. Thomas 233
Sigmund Freud 235
Otto Pollak 236
The Emergence of New Questions: Bringing Women In 236
The Second Wave: From Women's Emancipation to Patriarchy 238
Women's Emancipation and Crime 238
Patriarchy and Crime 240
Varieties of Feminist Thought 240
Early Feminist Perspectives 240
Contemporary Feminist Perspectives 242
The Intersection of Race, Class, and Gender 242
Masculinities and Crime: Doing Gender 247
Gendering Criminology 249
Gendered Pathways to Lawbreaking 249
Gendered Crime 249
Gendered Lives 250
Postmodernist Feminism and the Third Wave 251
Consequences of the Diversity of Feminist Perspectives 253
Some Implications of Feminist Criminology for Corrections 256
Conclusion 259
11. Crimes of the Powerful: Theories of White-Collar Crime 260
The Discovery of White-Collar Crime: Edwin H. Sutherland 264
The Philadelphia Address 265
Becoming the Father of White-Collar Crime 268
Defining White-Collar Crime 270
Explaining White-Collar Crime 274
Organizational Culture 277
Unethical Cultures 277
Oppositional Cultures 279
The Normalization of Deviance 280
Organizational Strain and Opportunity 282
Strain and Anomie 283
Criminogenic Opportunities 284
Deciding to Offend 285
Denying the Guilty Mind 286
White-Collar Crime as a Rational Choice 288
State-Corporate Crime 290
Consequences of White-Collar Crime Theory: Policy Implications 291
Conclusion 293
12. Bringing Punishment Back In: Conservative Criminology 295
Context: The United States of the 1980s and Early 1990s 297
The Economic Decline of the United States 297
The Persistence of Inequality in the United States 298
The Rhetoric of Stability 300
The Legacy of the Conservative Political Agenda 304
Varieties of Conservative Theory 306
Crime and Human Nature: Wilson and Herrnstein 307
The Theory 307
Assessing Crime and Human Nature 309
Crime and The Bell Curve: Herrnstein and Murray 311
The Criminal Mind 313
Choosing to Be Criminal: Crime Pays 315
Crime and Moral Poverty 316
Broken Windows: The Tolerance of Public Disorganization 319
Consequences of Conservative Theory: Policy Implications 322
Conclusion 326
13. Choosing Crime in Everyday Life: Routine Activityand Rational Choice Theories 328
Routine Activity Theory: Opportunities and Crime 329
The Chemistry for Crime: Offenders, Targets, and Guardians 332
View of Offenders 335
Policy Implications: Reducing Opportunities for Crime 336
Rational Choice Theory 341
Rational Choice and Crime 341
Are Offenders' Choices Rational? 343
Perceptual Deterrence Theory 346
Conclusion 350
14. The Search for the"Criminal Man" Revisited: Biosocial Theories 351
Evolutionary Psychology: Darwin Revisited 355
Theoretical Diversity 355
Assessment 356
Neuroscience: Neurological and Biochemical Theories 357
Mednick's Biosocial Theory 358
Brain Development and Crime 359
Biochemical Theories 361
Genetics 364
Behavior Genetics 365
Molecular Genetics 365
Epigenetics 367
Biological Risk and Protective Factors 368
Risk Factors 368
Protective Factors 371
Environmental Toxins 372
The Consequences of Biological Theories: Policy Implications 374
An Agenda for Research and Policy 374
Prevention and Treatment 376
The Construction of Crime 377
Challenges Ahead 380
Conclusion 382
15. The Development of Criminals: Life-Course Theories 384
Integrated Theories of Crime 387
Integrated Theorizing 388
Elliott and Colleagues' Integrated Strain-Control Paradigm 388
Thornberry's Interactional Theory 390
Policy Implications 393
Life-Course Criminology: Continuity and Change 393
Criminology in Crisis: Gottfredson and Hirschi Revisited 394
Patterson's Social-Interactional Developmental Model 396
Early-Onset Delinquency 396
Late-Onset Delinquency 397
Intervening With Families 398
Moffitt's Life-Course-Persistent/Adolescence-Limited Theory 398
Life-Course-Persistent Antisocial Behavior 400
Adolescence-Limited Antisocial Behavior 401
Assessing Moffitt's Theory 402
Sampson and Laub: Social Bond Theory Revisited 403
An Age-Graded Theory of Informal Social Control 404
Assessing Sampson and Laub's Life-Course Theory 406
Revising the Age-Graded Theory of Crime 407
Rethinking Crime: Cognitive Theories of Desistance 409
Maruna's Theory of Redemption Scripts 410
Giordano et al.'s Theory of Cognitive Transformation 411
The Consequences of Theory: Policy Implications 413
Conclusion 415
References 417
Photo Credits 463
Name Index 464
Subject Index 475
About the Authors 488