ONE The Study of Crime 5
Social Origins of the Criminal Law 5
The Social Image of the Criminal 12
Criminology: The Study of Crimi-nal Behavior 13
Strategies of Criminological Research 21
The Comparative and Historical Approaches 22
The Observational Technique 24
The Biographical Technique 26
The Analytic Induction Technique 28
The "Patterns of Crime" Technique 30
The "Combination of Tech-niques" Approach 32
The Cohort Study Technique 34
References 36
TWO The Costs of Crime 43
The Financial Costs of Crime 43
Physical Harm from Crime 54
Measuring the Seriousness of Crime 57
The Social Costs of Crime 59
References 68
THREE The Measurement of Crime 75
The Emergence of Modern Criminology 75
Official Crime Statistics in the United States 81
Crime Rates 84
Gathering Crime Statistics 89
The Measurement of Criminal Victimization 97
The Measurement of Crime by Self-Reports 103
References 105
FOUR The Social Dimensions of Crime 111
Geographical Variations in Crime Rates 111
Variations in Crime Rates by Size of Community 115
Crime within Metropolitan Areas 116
Urbanization, Migration, and Population Density 118
Temporal Variations in Crime Rates 121
Variations in Crime Rates by Sex 124
Victimization and Sex 129
Variations in Crime Rates by Age 130
Victimization and Age 134
Variations in Crime Rates by Race 134
Victimization and Race 138
Variations in Crime Rates by Social Class 139
Victimization and Social Class 141
References 141
FIVE Biological and Psychological Causes of Criminal Behavior 149
Biological Explanations of Crime 149
Psychological Explanations of Crime 157
Mental Deficiency Theories 157
Personality Characteristics 161
The Psychopathic Personality 164
The Psychoanalytic Perspective 166
Psychological Conditioning 170
Psychological Explanations and the Criminal Law 171
References 175
SIX Economic and Social Causes of Criminal Behavior 181
Economic and Social Causes of White-Collar Crime 181
Economic and Social Causes of Organized Crime 186
Economic and Social Causes of Conventional Crime 188
Anomie and Crime 191
Differential Opportunity and Crime 195
Social Class, Social Values, and Delinquency 197
The Subculture of Violence 200
Some Evidence on Social Class, Social Values,-and Delinquency 204
References 207
SEVEN Social Control and Commitment to the Law 213
Neutralizing the Law 213
Evidence on Techniques of Neutralization 222
Hirschi's Control Theory of Delinquency 227
Evidence on the Control Theory of Delinquency 230
Delinquency and the Family 232
Delinquency and the School 237
Delinquency and Other Social Bonds 238
References 242
EIGHT Learning to Commit Crime 249
The Theory of Differential Association 253
Evidence on the Theory of Differential Association 258
Labeling and Self-Concepts 266
The Rewards and Risks of Crime 272
References 283
NINE Opportunity and Organization to Commit Crime 293
The Target of the Crime 293
Victim-Offender Relationships 300
Alcohol as a Facilitator of Crime 308
Planning the Crime 309
Materiel for the Crime 312
The Organization of Criminal Behavior 316
Carrying out Plans for the Crime 324
After the Crime 326
References 328
TEN Criminal Careers 337
The Criminal Careers of Habitual Felons 341
A Cohort Study of Delinquency 344
The FBI's Study of Careers in Crime 348
Typologies of Criminal Careers 350
Leaving a Life of Crime 355
References 358
ELEVEN Community Reactions to Crime 363
The Informal Control of Crime 363
Public Support for the Law 370
Individual Response to Crime 373
Collective Response to Crime 378
Community Involvement in Crime Reduction Programs 382
References 385
TWELVE Deterrence, Incapacitation, and the Criminal Justice System 391
The Deterrence Model of Criminal Behavior 392
Deterrence and Individual Characteristics 395
Deterrence and the Nature of the Criminal Act 396
Deterrence and the Sanctioning Process 401
Deterrence and the Criminal Justice System 409
Deterrence and the Police 409
Deterrence and the Courts 413
Deterrence and the Prisons 414
Deterrence and Capital Punishment 414
The Incapacitative Effect of Punishment 416
References 418
THIRTEEN Retribution, Restitution, and the Criminal Justice System 425
The Social Functions of Retribution 428
Just Deserts: The Seriousness of Crimes 430
Just Deserts: The Unpleasantness of Penalties 433
Just Deserts: Linking Penalties to Crimes 435
Retribution and Capital Punishment 436
Retribution and the Criminal Justice System 438
Retribution and the Police 438
Retribution and the Courts 439
Retribution and the Prisons 441
Restitution: Just Deserts for the Victim 442
References 443
FOURTEEN Rehabilitation and the Criminal&Justice System 447
The Rehabilitative Rationale for Punishment 448
Rehabilitation and the Criminal Justice System 451
Rehabilitation and the Police 451
Rehabilitation and the Courts 452
Rehabilitation and the Prisons 454
The Effectiveness of Rehabilitation Programs 456
Measuring the Success of Treatment Programs 457
Types of Treatment Programs 459
Testing the Effects of a Group Counseling Program 461
The Evaluation of Treatment Methods 464
References 469
FIFTEEN Attacking the Crime Problem 473
Approaches to Solving the Crime Problem 473
The Politics of Crime 476
Crime and the Criminal Justice System 481
Attacking the Root Causes of Crime 484
References 491
Index 493