1. OWNERSHIP OF TONNAGE 1
1. National Tonnage： Overall Concept 1
State responsibility 1
International case law 2
Kinds of ownership 3
2. Individual Ownership 4
Kinds of registration law 4
Rigid laws 6
Relaxed laws：flags of “ convenience” 7
Balanced laws 13
3. Position in English Law 14
“British ship” 14
Obligation to register 19
Government ships 20
General scheme 21
Republic of Ireland 22
Effect of failure to register 25
British owners and flags of convenience 26
4. Government-Owned Tonnage 27
Commercially operated vessels 27
English law 29
5. International Organisations 30
General principles 30
International case law 31
Intergovernmental organisations 39
2. ACQUISITION oF TONNAGE 40
1. Methods of Acquisition 40
Economics of acquisition 40
Kinds of tonnage for acquisition 42
How to acquire tonnage 44
2. Second-hand ShipsRole of shipbrokers 45
3. New Building 57
Choice of shipyard 57
4. Chartering 82
Modern conditions 82
Kinds of time charters 87
5. Baltic Exchange 92
History 92
Operations 95
World tramp chartering 98
2. ACQUISITION OF TONNAGE—continued 100
5. Baltic Exchange—ontinued 100
Organisation 100
Discipline 101
Sale and purchase 102
3. ENGLISH LAW OF SALE 105
1. Contracts for Sale 105
Special features 105
Formation of contract 108
Construction of contracts in writing 110
Passing of proper 115
（ⅰ） sale or contract 115
（ⅱ） second-hand ships 121
（ⅲ） shipbuilding 138
（ⅳ） specific performance 143
Passing of the risk： frustration 145
Conditions and warranties： Act of 1893 150
Fraud and misrepresentation 158
Warranties during negotiations 161
Express conditions 176
Implied terms： performance of contract 185
2. Shipbrokers： Duties and RightsActing for whom？ 189
Commission 192
3. Conflict of Laws 197
Proper law of contract 197
Jurisdiction of English courts 210
4. Forms of Contract for Sale 216
Saleform agreement 216
Standard yacht-building agreement 224
4. OPERATION OF MERCHANT SHIPPING 234
1. Kinds of Seaborne Trade 234
Classification 234
Specialised trades 235
Dry cargo trade 237
2. Conference System 238
Characteristics 238
Advantages 241
Difficulties 242
Organisation 243
Practices 244
Conference Ratemaking 246
Conference and shipper 250
Governments and the conference 258
Conclusion： future of conference system 264
3. Tramp Shipping 270
Distinguishing characteristics 270
Mechanics of voyage chartering 272
4. Bilateralism in Shipping 279
Multilateralism 279
（1） Bilateral trade 280
（2） Bilateral aid 284
5. Independent Liner Operators 285
4.OPERATION OF MERCANT SHIPPING——continued 285
Competing with conferences 285
6. Proprietary Owners Individuals and States 287
7. Coastal Shipping Cabotage 288
5. ORGANISATIONS AIDING SHIPOWNERS 292
1. Intergovernmental Organisations Introduction 292
Need for international organisations 294
General intergovernmental organisations 301
IMCO 307
2. Non-governmental Organisations Classification 311
（A） International Cargo Handling Coordination Association 314
（B） International Association of Ports and Harbours 317
（C） National organisations in England 320
（ⅰ） Liverpool Steam Shipowners’ Association 320
（ⅱ） Shipping Advisory Panel 321
（ⅲ） National Maritime Board 323
（ⅳ） Shipping Federation 326
3. Chambers of Shipping 327
ICS and ISF 327
Chamber of Shipping of the United Kingdom 329
Historical survey 329
The Chamber’s Royal Charter 336
Membership of the Chamber 338
Organisation 339
International Chamber of Shipping 345
Committee of European Shipowners 349
Committee of European National Shipowners’Association 354
Committee of Liner Operators： South America 357
Other international organisations 358
Relations with other bodies 361
4. Comite Maritime International 364
Origin and development 364
Object 369
Organisation 370
Work 373
British Maritime Law Association 376
The post-war Comite 380
5. Classification SocietiesIntroduction 383
（i） Lloyd’s Classification Society History 385
Essence of classi fication 391
Statutory surveys 396
Safety Coventions 400
（ii） Other Classification Societies 403
Full list 403
American Bureau of Shipping 404
5. ORGANISATIONS AIDING SHIPOWNERS—contirued 409
5. Classification Societies—continued 409
Bureau Veritas 409
Norske Veritas 413
Nippon Kaiji Kyokai 414
Korean Register of Shipping 418
Turk Loydu 423
Soviet Classication Society 424
Future of classication societies 425
6. INSuRANCE IN LONDON 428
1. Lloyd’s 428
History 428
Organisation 432
Placing a risk 439
Lloyd’s Policy Signing Office 440
Settlement of claims 441
Average and Recoveries Department 442
（ⅰ） General Average， Salvage and Collision Section 445
（ⅱ） Shipowners’ Liability Section 448
（ⅲ） Non-Marine Recoveries and Refunds Section 450
（ⅳ） Marine Payments Section 451
Lloyd’s agency system 452
Intelligence Department 456
Lloyd’s shipping publications 457
Lloyd’s Underwriters’ Association 462
2. P.and I.Clubs 463
（ⅰ） Introduction 463
Place in insurance market 463
（ⅱ） History 465
18th century：limited insurance facilities 465
The hull Clubs 469
Increase of third party liabilities 477
Formation of P.and I.Clubs 485
（ⅲ） Scope of Modern Cover 490
Collisions，etc 490
Death，injury or illness 496
Other responsibility for crew，etc 500
Responsibility for cargo 503
Fines for offences，etc 509
“Omnibus” cover 510
Limitations on cover 512
（ⅳ） The Club and its Members 513
Entry 513
Legal status 515
Calls and deductibles 517
Administration and management 521
（ⅴ） Related Associations 528
Defence associations 528
War Risks Associations 529
3. Insurance Companies 536
Role in London market 536
History 537
Institute of London Underwriters 538
Relations with Lloyd’s： committees 540
Relations with Lloyd’s： the market 543
Business independent of Lloyd’s 547
6. INSuRANCE IN LONDON——continued 550
4. Export Credit Guarantees 550
Credit insurance by E.C.G.D. 550
Facilities provided 551
History of E.C.G.D. 552
Act of 1949 555
Period of credit 558
Credit insurance for shipbuilding 562
Bank guarantees 566
Financial guarantees 567
Direct loans by State 568
7. PORTS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM 570
1. Types of Ports 570
（ⅰ） Public trust authorities 570
（ⅱ） Municipally-owned ports 573
（ⅲ） Nationalised ports 574
（ⅳ） Company-owned ports 575
Associated authorities 576
2. Legislation affecting Ports 577
Special enactments 577
General enactments 578
3. Powers of Port Authorities 580
General powers 580
Power to make by-laws 581
Entry and movement of ships 585
4. Port charges 590
Ship，passenger and goods dues 590
Services and facilities 598
Collection of port charges 599
Light dues 603
5. Rights and Duties of Authorities 606
Wreck removal 606
Oil in navigable waters 609
Limitation of liability 610
Damage to dock works 611
Pilotage 612
6. Organisations Concerned with Ports 613
National Ports Council 613
Dock and Harbour Authorities’Association 615
National Association of Port Employers 616
Trinity House 617
7. Port of London Authority 618
Creation of the P.L.A. 618
Constitution 622
Jurisdiction 623
Functions 624
Finance of the P.L.A 633
Dues 634
8. AGENTS OF CARGO AND SHIP 635
1. Forwarding Agents 635
Functions 635
Institute of Shipping and Forwarding Agents 638
Forwarding agent as principal 639
8. AGENTS oF CARGO AND SHIP—continued 640
1. Forwarding Agents—continued 640
Forwarding agent as carrier 640
“ Groupage ” bills of lading 643
Bailee’s liability in tort 644
Personal liability to shipowner 647
London custom as to freight 648
Other obligations 650
Right to sue shipowner in own name 651
Forwarding agent’s bill of lading 652
Forwarding agent’s lien 654
Stoppage in transitu 656
2. Loading Brokers 657
Function 657
Legal Position 659
3. Ship’s Agents 664
Functions 664
4. Bill of Lading Practice 668
Introduction 668
Arrangements for shipment 669
Essential facts detailed 671
Format 679
Process of issue 683
Non-negotiable receipts 689
Release of cargo at destination 692
Mechanisation 693
Life of a bill of lading 694
Unit loads 694
Sea/air transit 695
9.MODEL ALL-PURPOSE BILL oF LADING 696
The need 696
A model bill of lading 706
The carrying clauses 712
Preamble or introduction 719
Dangerous or politically unsafe goods 720
Jurisdiction 721
Liner company’s special clauses 722
10. SETTLEMENT oF DISPUTES IN LONDON 722
1. Commercial Court 758
Origin and development 758
Order 72 of1964 765
Types of action tried in the Commercial Court 767
Transfer of an action to the Commercial List 770
Summons for directions 772
Evidence at the trial 776
Order 72 778
2. Maritime Arbitration 788
Arbitration clauses in charter parties 788
Arbitrators as advocates 792
Sole arbitrator 794
Access to court 795
“London Rules” 796
London Maritime Arbitrators’Association 797
3. Average Adjustment 798
History 798
Association of Average Adjusters 799
Legal position 800
11. FIAG DiSCRIMINATION 801
1. State Responsibili 801
Basic principle 801
Sovereign equality of States 802
Applications 803
Meaning of “flag discrimination” 806
2. Effects of the First World War 812
New trends 812
3. Effects of the Second World War 823
Nations newly come to shipping 823
Advent of IMCO 825
Declarations qualifying entry 827
What is “discriminatory”？ 830
Limitations of IMCO 833
Conclusions 834
4. Geneva Conventions of 1958 on the Law of the Sea 837
Evolutionary effects 837
Convention on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone，Geneva 1958 838
Convention on the High Seas， Geneva 1958 839
5. International Convention on the Liability of Operators of Nuclear Ships， Brussels，May 1962 Significance 841
6. Practice of States regarding Discrimination U.S.A. v.U.K.trade war 842
（A） Practice of United States of America 843
（B） State practice of United Kingdom 863
（C） State practice of India 870
7. Views of International Chambers of Commerce and Shipping on practice of States 882
Classes of discrimination 882
Examples 883
A.Restrictive clauses in trade treaties 883
B.Unilateral action by governments 885
8.Views of OEEC and other Organisations 893
OEEC 893
LAFTA 894
GATT 895
UNCTAD 896
ECAFE Shipping Report 899
9. International Law Concept of Flag Discrimination Question of legality 901
（A） Legal approach 903
（B） Position in customary international law 919
（C） Approach based on practice of States； concept of an international standard 920