Section 1 CONCEPTS OF CRIME， LAW， AND CRIMINOLOGY 1
1 Crime and Criminology 2
Introduction 3
What Is Criminology？ 5
Criminology and Criminal Justice 5
Criminology and Deviance 8
A Brief History of Criminology 8
Classical Criminology 9
Nineteenth-Century Positivism 10
Positivist Criminology 11
Cesare Lombroso and the Criminal Man 11
The Development of Sociological Criminology 11
Foundations of Sociological Criminology 12
Emile Durkheim 12
The Chicago School and Beyond 13
Conflict Criminology 13
Criminology Today 13
What Criminologists Do: The Criminological Enterprise 14
Criminal Statistics 14
Sociology of Law 14
Theory Construction 16
Criminal Behavior Systems 17
Penology 17
Victimology 17
How Do Criminologists View Crime？ 18
The Consensus View of Crime 18
The Conflict View of Crime 18
The Interactionist View of Crime 19
Defining Crime 20
Doing Criminology 20
Survey Research 20
Surveys in Practice 21
Longitudinal Research 21
Aggregate Data Research 22
Experimental Research 22
Observational Research 22
Ethical Issues in Criminology 22
2 The Criminal Law and Its Processes 26
Introduction 27
The Origin of Law 27
The Dark Ages 28
Origins of Common Law 28
Crime and Custom 28
The Norman Conquest 29
The Common Law 29
Common Law and Statutory Law 29
Common Law in America 31
Common Law in Other Cultures 32
Classification of Law 32
Crimes and Torts: Similarities 32
Crimes and Torts: Differences 32
Felony and Misdemeanor 33
Mala in Se and Mala Prohibitum 33
Functions of the Criminal Law 36
Social Control 36
Banishes Personal Retribution 36
Expresses Public Opinion and Morality 36
Deters Criminal Behavior 37
Maintains the Social Order 37
The Legal Definition of a Crime 37
Actus Reus 38
Mens Rea 39
Criminal Defenses 40
Ignorance or Mistake 40
Insanity 40
Intoxication 42
Duress 42
Necessity 42
Self-Defense 42
Entrapment 43
Reforming the Criminal Law 44
3 The Nature and Extent of Crime 47
Introduction 48
The Uniform Crime Report 48
Critique of the Uniform Crime Report 49
Self-Report Surveys 51
Evaluating Self-Report Studies 52
Are Self-Reports Valid？ 53
Victim Surveys 53
The National Crime Victimization Survey 53
Critique of the NCVS 53
Are Crime Statistics Sources Compatible？ 54
Official Crime Trends in the United States 55
Self-Report Trends 56
Victim Data Trends 57
Explaining Crime Trends 57
What the Future Holds 58
Crime Patterns 59
The Ecology of Crime 59
Use of Firearms 59
Social Class and Crime 60
Age and Crime 66
Gender and Crime 69
Race and Crime 70
Criminal Careers 72
Delinquency in a Birth Cohort 73
Birth Cohort Ⅱ 73
Chronic Offender Research 74
Stability in Crime: From Delinquent to Criminal 74
Criminal Career Development in Other Cultures 74
Policy Implications of the Chronic Offender Concept 75
4 Victims and Victimization 81
Introduction 82
Problems of Crime Victims: Loss 82
Problems of Crime Victims: Suffering 83
The Nature of Victimization 84
The Social Ecology of Victimization 84
The Victim’s Household 85
Victim Characteristics 86
Gender 86
Age 86
Social Status 88
Marital Status 88
Race 89
The Victims and Their Criminals 89
Intimate Violence 90
Theories of Victimization 90
Victim Precipitation Theory:Active and Passive 91
Life-Style Theory 93
Routine Activities Theory 94
The Proximity Hypothesis 96
Crime and Victimization 97
Caring for the Victim 98
The Government’s Response 98
Victim Service Programs 98
Victim Compensation 98
Court Services 99
Public Education 99
Crisis Intervention 99
Victim’s Rights 99
Self-Protection 100
Fighting Back 101
Community Organization 102
Section 2 THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION 107
5 Choice Theories 108
Introduction 109
The Development of Classical Theory 109
The Rise and Fall of Classical Tbeory 109
Choice Theory Emerges 110
Thinking about Crime 111
The Concept of Rational Choice 111
Offense and Offender Specifications 113
Rational Choice and Routine Activities 113
Suitable Targets 113
Capable Guardians 113
Motivated Criminals 114
Is Crime Rational？ 114
Choosing Targets 114
Can Violence Be Rational？ 115
The Situation of Crime 115
Eliminating Crime 116
Situational Crime Prevention 116
Situational Crime Prevention: Strategies 116
Situational Crime Prevention: Tactics 117
Displacement， Extinction， Discouragement， and Diffusion 118
General Deterrence 119
Research on General Deterrence 119
Objective Measures 120
Experimental Research 120
The Special Case of Capital Punishment 122
Perceptual Research 123
Panel Studies 124
Informal Sanctions 124
General Deterrence in Review 125
Specific Deterrence 126
Research on Specific Deterrence 126
The Domestic Violence Studies 126
Pain versus Shame 127
Incapacitation 128
Research on Incapacitation 128
The Logic of Incarceration 128
Selective Incapacitation: Three Strikes and You’re Out 129
Policy Implications of Choice Theory 129
Just Dessert 130
6 Biosocial and Psychological Theories of Crime Causation 137
Introduction 138
Foundations of Biological Theory 139
Impact of Sociobiology 140
Biosocial Theory 140
Learning Potential 141
Biochemical Factors 141
Chemical and Mineral Influences 141
Hypoglycemia 142
Hormonal Influences 142
Allergies 143
Environmental Contaminants 144
Neurophysiological Studies 144
Measuring Neurological Impairments 145
Minimal Brain Dysfunction 145
Attention Deficit Disorder 145
Brain Chemistry 147
Genetic Influences 147
Twin Studies 147
Adoption Studies 148
Evaluating Genetic Research 148
Evolutionary Factors 149
Evaluation of the Biosocial Perspective 149
Psychological Theories of Crime 150
Theory of Imitation 150
Psychodynamic Perspective 150
Psycbodynamics of Abnormal Behavior 152
Psycbodynamics of Criminal Behavior 152
Behavioral Theories 153
Social Learning Theory 153
Cognitive Theory 157
Moral and Intellectual Development Theory 158
Information Processing 158
Crime and Mental Illness 159
Personality and Crime 160
Research on Personality 160
Intelligence and Crime 161
Nature Theory 162
Nurture Theory 163
IQ and Criminality 164
IQ and Crime Reconsidered 164
Social Policy Implications 165
7 Social Structure Theories 173
Introduction 174
Sociological Criminology 174
Economic Structure 175
Lower-Class Culture 176
Racial Disparity 177
The Underclass 178
The Truly Disadvantaged 178
Are the Poor “Undeserving”？ 179
Social Structure Theories 179
Branches of Social Structure Theory 180
Social Disorganization Theory 181
The Work of Shaw and McKay 181
Transitional Neighborhoods 181
Concentric Zones 182
The Legacy of Shaw and McKay 182
The Social Ecology School 183
Community Deterioration 184
Employment Opportunities 184
Community Fear 184
Siege Mentality 185
Population Turnover 185
Community Change 185
Poverty Concentration 186
Weak Social Controls 186
Strain Theories 187
Anomie 187
Theory of Anomie 187
Social Adaptations 188
Evaluation of Anomie Theory 188
Institutional Anomie Theory 189
Relative Deprivation Theory 189
Is Relative Deprivation “Relative”？ 190
General Strain Theory 191
Coping with Strain 192
Strain and Criminal Careers 192
Cultural Deviance Theory 193
Conduct Norms 193
Focal Concerns 193
Theory of Delinquent Subcultures 194
Middle-Class Measuring Rods 194
The Formation of Deviant Subcultures 194
Theory of Differential Opportunity 195
Differential Opportunities 195
Analysis of Differential Opportunity Theory 196
The Gang Problem 196
Evaluation of Social Structure Theories 197
Social Structure Theory and Social Policy 198
8 Social Process Theories 205
Introduction 206
Social Processes and Crime 206
Family Relations 206
Educational Experience 207
Peer Relations 207
Social Process Theories 208
Social Learning Theory 209
Differential Association Theory 209
Principles of Differential Association 209
Testing Differential Association 211
The Future of Differential Association 212
Differential Reinforcement Theory 213
Analyzing Differential Reinforcement Theory 213
Neutralization Theory 214
Techniques of Neutralization 214
Empirical Research 215
Evaluation of Learning Theories 215
Social Control Theories 215
Self-Concept and Crime 216
Containment Theory 217
Social Control Theory 217
Elements of the Social Bond 217
Empirical Research 218
Supporting Research 218
Opposing Views 219
Labeling Theory 220
Crime and Labeling Theory 221
Differential Enforcement 222
Becoming Labeled 222
Consequences of Labeling 222
Primary and Secondary Deviance 223
General Theory of Deviance 224
Differential Social Control 224
Research on Labeling Theory 224
Criticisms of Labeling Theory 225
An Evaluation of Social Process Theory 226
Social Process Theory and Social Policy 227
9 Social Conflict Theories 235
Introduction 236
Marxist Thought 237
Productive Forces and Productive Relations 237
Surplus Value 238
Marx on Crime 238
Developing a Conflict Theory of Crime 239
The Contribution of Willem Bonger 239
The Contribution of Ralf Dahrendorf 240
The Contribution of George Vold 240
Conflict Theory 241
Conflict Criminology 241
Power Relations 242
The Social Reality of Crime 242
Research on Conflict Theory 243
Analysis of Conflict Theory 244
Marxist Criminology 244
The Development of Radical Criminology 245
Fundamentals of Marxist Criminology 246
Economic Structure and Surplus Value 246
Instrumental Marxism 247
Structural Marxism 248
Research on Marxist Criminology 249
Crime， the Individual， and the State 249
Historical Analyses 251
Critique of Marxist Criminology 251
Left Realism 253
Origins of Left Realism 253
Radical Feminist Theory 254
Marxist Feminism 254
Radical Feminism 254
Power-Control Theory 255
Deconstructionism 256
Peacemaking Criminology 256
10 Integrated Theories: Multifactor， Latent Trait， and Life Course 263
Introduction 264
Integrated Theories 264
Multifactor Theories 264
Latent Trait Theories 265
Life Course Theories 266
Commonalities and Distinctions 266
Multifactor Theories 266
Social Development Theory 266
Elliott’s Integrated Theory 267
Integrated Structural Marxist Theory 269
The Latent Trait Approach 269
Crime and Human Nature 270
Choosing Crime or Noncrime 270
General Theory of Crime 272
The Act and the Offender 272
What Makes People Crime-Prone？ 272
Self-Control and Crime 274
An Analysis of the General Theory of Crime 274
Life Course Theories 275
The Glueck Research 275
Life Course Emerges 276
Is There a Problem Behavior Syndrome？ 277
Pathways to Crime 278
Theories of the Criminal Life Course 278
Farrington’s Theory of Delinquent Development 278
Nonoffenders and Desisters 280
Theoretical Modeling 281
Interactional Theory 281
Laub and Sampson: Age-Graded Theory 284
Turning Points and Social Capital 285
Section 3 CRIME TYPOLOGIES 291
11 Violent Crime 292
Introduction 293
The Roots of Violence 293
Personal Traits 294
Abusive Families 295
Human Instinct 295
Cultural Values 296
Regional Values 297
Substance Abuse 297
Firearm Availability 297
Violent Crimes 298
Forcible Rape 298
History of Rape 298
Incidence of Rape 299
Types of Rape 300
The Cause of Rape 301
Rape and the Law 302
Murder and Homicide 305
Degrees of Murder 305
The Nature and Extent of Murder 306
Murderous Relations 306
Stranger Homicides 307
Murder Transactions 308
Types of Murderers 308
Serial Murder 309
Assault and Battery 312
Nature of Assault 312
Assault in the Home 313
Sexual Abuse 313
Causes of Child Abuse 313
Spouse Abuse 314
Robbery 316
Robber Typologies 317
Evolving Forms of Violence 318
Hate Crimes 318
The Roots of Hate 318
Extent of Hate Crime 319
Workplace Violence 319
Political Violence 320
Terrorism 320
Forms of Terrorism 321
Who Is the Terrorist？ 323
Responses to Terrorism 323
12 Economic Crimes: Street Crimes 331
Introduction 332
A Brief History of Theft 332
Modern Thieves 333
Occasional Criminals 333
Professional Criminals 333
Sutherland’s Professional Criminal 334
Professional Criminals: The Fence 335
Occasional Criminals: The Nonprofessional Fence 336
Theft Categories 336
Larceny/Theft 337
Larceny Today 337
Shoplifting 337
Bad Checks 339
Credit Card Theft 339
Auto Theft 339
False Pretenses or Fraud 341
Embezzlement 342
Burglary 342
The Extent of Burglary 343
Careers in Burglary 343
The Burglary “Career Ladder” 344
Arson 344
The Cause of Arson 345
13 Organizational Criminality: White-Collar and Organized Crime 350
Introduction 351
Are Tbey Equivalent？ Comparable？ Similar？ 351
White-Collar Crime 351
Redefining Wbite-Collar Crime 352
The White-Collar Crime Problem 352
International White-Collar Crime 353
Components of White-Collar Crime 353
Stings and Swindles 354
Religious Swindles 355
Chiseling 355
Securities Fraud 356
Individual Exploitation of Institutional Position 357
Influence Peddling and Bribery 357
Influence Peddling in Government 358
Corruption in the Criminal Justice System 359
Influence Peddling in Business 359
Embezzlement and Employee Fraud 360
Bhue-Collar Fraud 360
Management Fraud 360
Computer Crime 361
Client Frauds 365
Tax Evasion 365
Corporate Crime 367
Illegal Restraint of Trade and Price-Fixing 367
False Claims and Advertising 368
Environmental Crimes 369
The Cause of White-Collar Crime 370
Greedy or Needy？ 371
Corporate Culture Theory 371
The Self-Control View 372
Controlling White-Collar Crime 373
White-Collar Law Enforcement Systems 374
White-Collar Control Strategies: Compliance 375
White-Collar Control Strategies: Deterrence 376
Punishing White-Collar Criminals 376
Organized Crime 376
Characteristics of Organized Crime 377
Activities of Organized Crime 377
Organized Crime and Legitimate Enterprise 378
The Concept of Organized Crime 380
Alien Conspiracy Theory：La Cosa Nostra 380
The Mafia Myth 383
Organized Crime Groups 383
Organized Crime Abroad 384
Controlling Organized Crime 384
The Future of Organized Crime 386
14 Public Order Crime: Sex and Substance Abuse 394
Introduction 395
Law and Morality 395
Debating Morality 396
Criminal or Immoral？ 397
Moral Crusaders 397
Illegal Sexuality 398
Homosexuality 398
Attitudes toward Homosexuality 398
Homosexuality and the Law 399
Paraphilias 400
Prostitution 400
Incidence of Prostitution 402
Types of Prostitution 403
Becoming a Prostitute 405
Pimps 405
Legalize Prostitution？ 406
Pornography 406
The Dangers of Pornography 407
Does Pornography Cause Violence？ 407
Pornography and the Law 408
Controlling Sex for Profit 409
Substance Abuse 410
When Did Drug Use Begin？ 410
Alcohol and Its Prohibition 411
Commonly Abused Drugs 411
The Extent of Substance Abuse 416
Are the Surveys Accurate？ 416
AIDS and Drug Use 417
The Cause of Substance Abuse 417
Types of Drug Users 419
Drugs and Crime 421
The Cycle of Addiction 422
Drugs and the Law 424
Alcohol Abuse 424
Drug Control Strategies 426
Legalization 433
Glossary 441
Subject Index 459
Name Index 473
Table of Cases 484