CRIMINOLOGY THEORIESPDF电子书下载

Section 1 CONCEPTS OF CRIME， LAW， AND CRIMINOLOGY 1

1 Crime and Criminology 2

Introduction 3

What Is Criminology？ 5

Criminology and Criminal Justice 5

Criminology and Deviance 8

A Brief History of Criminology 8

Classical Criminology 9

Nineteenth-Century Positivism 10

Positivist Criminology 11

Cesare Lombroso and the Criminal Man 11

The Development of Sociological Criminology 11

Foundations of Sociological Criminology 12

Emile Durkheim 12

The Chicago School and Beyond 13

Conflict Criminology 13

Criminology Today 13

What Criminologists Do: The Criminological Enterprise 14

Criminal Statistics 14

Sociology of Law 14

Theory Construction 16

Criminal Behavior Systems 17

Penology 17

Victimology 17

How Do Criminologists View Crime？ 18

The Consensus View of Crime 18

The Conflict View of Crime 18

The Interactionist View of Crime 19

Defining Crime 20

Doing Criminology 20

Survey Research 20

Surveys in Practice 21

Longitudinal Research 21

Aggregate Data Research 22

Experimental Research 22

Observational Research 22

Ethical Issues in Criminology 22

2 The Criminal Law and Its Processes 26

Introduction 27

The Origin of Law 27

The Dark Ages 28

Origins of Common Law 28

Crime and Custom 28

The Norman Conquest 29

The Common Law 29

Common Law and Statutory Law 29

Common Law in America 31

Common Law in Other Cultures 32

Classification of Law 32

Crimes and Torts: Similarities 32

Crimes and Torts: Differences 32

Felony and Misdemeanor 33

Mala in Se and Mala Prohibitum 33

Functions of the Criminal Law 36

Social Control 36

Banishes Personal Retribution 36

Expresses Public Opinion and Morality 36

Deters Criminal Behavior 37

Maintains the Social Order 37

The Legal Definition of a Crime 37

Actus Reus 38

Mens Rea 39

Criminal Defenses 40

Ignorance or Mistake 40

Insanity 40

Intoxication 42

Duress 42

Necessity 42

Self-Defense 42

Entrapment 43

Reforming the Criminal Law 44

3 The Nature and Extent of Crime 47

Introduction 48

The Uniform Crime Report 48

Critique of the Uniform Crime Report 49

Self-Report Surveys 51

Evaluating Self-Report Studies 52

Are Self-Reports Valid？ 53

Victim Surveys 53

The National Crime Victimization Survey 53

Critique of the NCVS 53

Are Crime Statistics Sources Compatible？ 54

Official Crime Trends in the United States 55

Self-Report Trends 56

Victim Data Trends 57

Explaining Crime Trends 57

What the Future Holds 58

Crime Patterns 59

The Ecology of Crime 59

Use of Firearms 59

Social Class and Crime 60

Age and Crime 66

Gender and Crime 69

Race and Crime 70

Criminal Careers 72

Delinquency in a Birth Cohort 73

Birth Cohort Ⅱ 73

Chronic Offender Research 74

Stability in Crime: From Delinquent to Criminal 74

Criminal Career Development in Other Cultures 74

Policy Implications of the Chronic Offender Concept 75

4 Victims and Victimization 81

Introduction 82

Problems of Crime Victims: Loss 82

Problems of Crime Victims: Suffering 83

The Nature of Victimization 84

The Social Ecology of Victimization 84

The Victim’s Household 85

Victim Characteristics 86

Gender 86

Age 86

Social Status 88

Marital Status 88

Race 89

The Victims and Their Criminals 89

Intimate Violence 90

Theories of Victimization 90

Victim Precipitation Theory:Active and Passive 91

Life-Style Theory 93

Routine Activities Theory 94

The Proximity Hypothesis 96

Crime and Victimization 97

Caring for the Victim 98

The Government’s Response 98

Victim Service Programs 98

Victim Compensation 98

Court Services 99

Public Education 99

Crisis Intervention 99

Victim’s Rights 99

Self-Protection 100

Fighting Back 101

Community Organization 102

Section 2 THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION 107

5 Choice Theories 108

Introduction 109

The Development of Classical Theory 109

The Rise and Fall of Classical Tbeory 109

Choice Theory Emerges 110

Thinking about Crime 111

The Concept of Rational Choice 111

Offense and Offender Specifications 113

Rational Choice and Routine Activities 113

Suitable Targets 113

Capable Guardians 113

Motivated Criminals 114

Is Crime Rational？ 114

Choosing Targets 114

Can Violence Be Rational？ 115

The Situation of Crime 115

Eliminating Crime 116

Situational Crime Prevention 116

Situational Crime Prevention: Strategies 116

Situational Crime Prevention: Tactics 117

Displacement， Extinction， Discouragement， and Diffusion 118

General Deterrence 119

Research on General Deterrence 119

Objective Measures 120

Experimental Research 120

The Special Case of Capital Punishment 122

Perceptual Research 123

Panel Studies 124

Informal Sanctions 124

General Deterrence in Review 125

Specific Deterrence 126

Research on Specific Deterrence 126

The Domestic Violence Studies 126

Pain versus Shame 127

Incapacitation 128

Research on Incapacitation 128

The Logic of Incarceration 128

Selective Incapacitation: Three Strikes and You’re Out 129

Policy Implications of Choice Theory 129

Just Dessert 130

6 Biosocial and Psychological Theories of Crime Causation 137

Introduction 138

Foundations of Biological Theory 139

Impact of Sociobiology 140

Biosocial Theory 140

Learning Potential 141

Biochemical Factors 141

Chemical and Mineral Influences 141

Hypoglycemia 142

Hormonal Influences 142

Allergies 143

Environmental Contaminants 144

Neurophysiological Studies 144

Measuring Neurological Impairments 145

Minimal Brain Dysfunction 145

Attention Deficit Disorder 145

Brain Chemistry 147

Genetic Influences 147

Twin Studies 147

Adoption Studies 148

Evaluating Genetic Research 148

Evolutionary Factors 149

Evaluation of the Biosocial Perspective 149

Psychological Theories of Crime 150

Theory of Imitation 150

Psychodynamic Perspective 150

Psycbodynamics of Abnormal Behavior 152

Psycbodynamics of Criminal Behavior 152

Behavioral Theories 153

Social Learning Theory 153

Cognitive Theory 157

Moral and Intellectual Development Theory 158

Information Processing 158

Crime and Mental Illness 159

Personality and Crime 160

Research on Personality 160

Intelligence and Crime 161

Nature Theory 162

Nurture Theory 163

IQ and Criminality 164

IQ and Crime Reconsidered 164

Social Policy Implications 165

7 Social Structure Theories 173

Introduction 174

Sociological Criminology 174

Economic Structure 175

Lower-Class Culture 176

Racial Disparity 177

The Underclass 178

The Truly Disadvantaged 178

Are the Poor “Undeserving”？ 179

Social Structure Theories 179

Branches of Social Structure Theory 180

Social Disorganization Theory 181

The Work of Shaw and McKay 181

Transitional Neighborhoods 181

Concentric Zones 182

The Legacy of Shaw and McKay 182

The Social Ecology School 183

Community Deterioration 184

Employment Opportunities 184

Community Fear 184

Siege Mentality 185

Population Turnover 185

Community Change 185

Poverty Concentration 186

Weak Social Controls 186

Strain Theories 187

Anomie 187

Theory of Anomie 187

Social Adaptations 188

Evaluation of Anomie Theory 188

Institutional Anomie Theory 189

Relative Deprivation Theory 189

Is Relative Deprivation “Relative”？ 190

General Strain Theory 191

Coping with Strain 192

Strain and Criminal Careers 192

Cultural Deviance Theory 193

Conduct Norms 193

Focal Concerns 193

Theory of Delinquent Subcultures 194

Middle-Class Measuring Rods 194

The Formation of Deviant Subcultures 194

Theory of Differential Opportunity 195

Differential Opportunities 195

Analysis of Differential Opportunity Theory 196

The Gang Problem 196

Evaluation of Social Structure Theories 197

Social Structure Theory and Social Policy 198

8 Social Process Theories 205

Introduction 206

Social Processes and Crime 206

Family Relations 206

Educational Experience 207

Peer Relations 207

Social Process Theories 208

Social Learning Theory 209

Differential Association Theory 209

Principles of Differential Association 209

Testing Differential Association 211

The Future of Differential Association 212

Differential Reinforcement Theory 213

Analyzing Differential Reinforcement Theory 213

Neutralization Theory 214

Techniques of Neutralization 214

Empirical Research 215

Evaluation of Learning Theories 215

Social Control Theories 215

Self-Concept and Crime 216

Containment Theory 217

Social Control Theory 217

Elements of the Social Bond 217

Empirical Research 218

Supporting Research 218

Opposing Views 219

Labeling Theory 220

Crime and Labeling Theory 221

Differential Enforcement 222

Becoming Labeled 222

Consequences of Labeling 222

Primary and Secondary Deviance 223

General Theory of Deviance 224

Differential Social Control 224

Research on Labeling Theory 224

Criticisms of Labeling Theory 225

An Evaluation of Social Process Theory 226

Social Process Theory and Social Policy 227

9 Social Conflict Theories 235

Introduction 236

Marxist Thought 237

Productive Forces and Productive Relations 237

Surplus Value 238

Marx on Crime 238

Developing a Conflict Theory of Crime 239

The Contribution of Willem Bonger 239

The Contribution of Ralf Dahrendorf 240

The Contribution of George Vold 240

Conflict Theory 241

Conflict Criminology 241

Power Relations 242

The Social Reality of Crime 242

Research on Conflict Theory 243

Analysis of Conflict Theory 244

Marxist Criminology 244

The Development of Radical Criminology 245

Fundamentals of Marxist Criminology 246

Economic Structure and Surplus Value 246

Instrumental Marxism 247

Structural Marxism 248

Research on Marxist Criminology 249

Crime， the Individual， and the State 249

Historical Analyses 251

Critique of Marxist Criminology 251

Left Realism 253

Origins of Left Realism 253

Radical Feminist Theory 254

Marxist Feminism 254

Radical Feminism 254

Power-Control Theory 255

Deconstructionism 256

Peacemaking Criminology 256

10 Integrated Theories: Multifactor， Latent Trait， and Life Course 263

Introduction 264

Integrated Theories 264

Multifactor Theories 264

Latent Trait Theories 265

Life Course Theories 266

Commonalities and Distinctions 266

Multifactor Theories 266

Social Development Theory 266

Elliott’s Integrated Theory 267

Integrated Structural Marxist Theory 269

The Latent Trait Approach 269

Crime and Human Nature 270

Choosing Crime or Noncrime 270

General Theory of Crime 272

The Act and the Offender 272

What Makes People Crime-Prone？ 272

Self-Control and Crime 274

An Analysis of the General Theory of Crime 274

Life Course Theories 275

The Glueck Research 275

Life Course Emerges 276

Is There a Problem Behavior Syndrome？ 277

Pathways to Crime 278

Theories of the Criminal Life Course 278

Farrington’s Theory of Delinquent Development 278

Nonoffenders and Desisters 280

Theoretical Modeling 281

Interactional Theory 281

Laub and Sampson: Age-Graded Theory 284

Turning Points and Social Capital 285

Section 3 CRIME TYPOLOGIES 291

11 Violent Crime 292

Introduction 293

The Roots of Violence 293

Personal Traits 294

Abusive Families 295

Human Instinct 295

Cultural Values 296

Regional Values 297

Substance Abuse 297

Firearm Availability 297

Violent Crimes 298

Forcible Rape 298

History of Rape 298

Incidence of Rape 299

Types of Rape 300

The Cause of Rape 301

Rape and the Law 302

Murder and Homicide 305

Degrees of Murder 305

The Nature and Extent of Murder 306

Murderous Relations 306

Stranger Homicides 307

Murder Transactions 308

Types of Murderers 308

Serial Murder 309

Assault and Battery 312

Nature of Assault 312

Assault in the Home 313

Sexual Abuse 313

Causes of Child Abuse 313

Spouse Abuse 314

Robbery 316

Robber Typologies 317

Evolving Forms of Violence 318

Hate Crimes 318

The Roots of Hate 318

Extent of Hate Crime 319

Workplace Violence 319

Political Violence 320

Terrorism 320

Forms of Terrorism 321

Who Is the Terrorist？ 323

Responses to Terrorism 323

12 Economic Crimes: Street Crimes 331

Introduction 332

A Brief History of Theft 332

Modern Thieves 333

Occasional Criminals 333

Professional Criminals 333

Sutherland’s Professional Criminal 334

Professional Criminals: The Fence 335

Occasional Criminals: The Nonprofessional Fence 336

Theft Categories 336

Larceny/Theft 337

Larceny Today 337

Shoplifting 337

Bad Checks 339

Credit Card Theft 339

Auto Theft 339

False Pretenses or Fraud 341

Embezzlement 342

Burglary 342

The Extent of Burglary 343

Careers in Burglary 343

The Burglary “Career Ladder” 344

Arson 344

The Cause of Arson 345

13 Organizational Criminality: White-Collar and Organized Crime 350

Introduction 351

Are Tbey Equivalent？ Comparable？ Similar？ 351

White-Collar Crime 351

Redefining Wbite-Collar Crime 352

The White-Collar Crime Problem 352

International White-Collar Crime 353

Components of White-Collar Crime 353

Stings and Swindles 354

Religious Swindles 355

Chiseling 355

Securities Fraud 356

Individual Exploitation of Institutional Position 357

Influence Peddling and Bribery 357

Influence Peddling in Government 358

Corruption in the Criminal Justice System 359

Influence Peddling in Business 359

Embezzlement and Employee Fraud 360

Bhue-Collar Fraud 360

Management Fraud 360

Computer Crime 361

Client Frauds 365

Tax Evasion 365

Corporate Crime 367

Illegal Restraint of Trade and Price-Fixing 367

False Claims and Advertising 368

Environmental Crimes 369

The Cause of White-Collar Crime 370

Greedy or Needy？ 371

Corporate Culture Theory 371

The Self-Control View 372

Controlling White-Collar Crime 373

White-Collar Law Enforcement Systems 374

White-Collar Control Strategies: Compliance 375

White-Collar Control Strategies: Deterrence 376

Punishing White-Collar Criminals 376

Organized Crime 376

Characteristics of Organized Crime 377

Activities of Organized Crime 377

Organized Crime and Legitimate Enterprise 378

The Concept of Organized Crime 380

Alien Conspiracy Theory：La Cosa Nostra 380

The Mafia Myth 383

Organized Crime Groups 383

Organized Crime Abroad 384

Controlling Organized Crime 384

The Future of Organized Crime 386

14 Public Order Crime: Sex and Substance Abuse 394

Introduction 395

Law and Morality 395

Debating Morality 396

Criminal or Immoral？ 397

Moral Crusaders 397

Illegal Sexuality 398

Homosexuality 398

Attitudes toward Homosexuality 398

Homosexuality and the Law 399

Paraphilias 400

Prostitution 400

Incidence of Prostitution 402

Types of Prostitution 403

Becoming a Prostitute 405

Pimps 405

Legalize Prostitution？ 406

Pornography 406

The Dangers of Pornography 407

Does Pornography Cause Violence？ 407

Pornography and the Law 408

Controlling Sex for Profit 409

Substance Abuse 410

When Did Drug Use Begin？ 410

Alcohol and Its Prohibition 411

Commonly Abused Drugs 411

The Extent of Substance Abuse 416

Are the Surveys Accurate？ 416

AIDS and Drug Use 417

The Cause of Substance Abuse 417

Types of Drug Users 419

Drugs and Crime 421

The Cycle of Addiction 422

Drugs and the Law 424

Alcohol Abuse 424

Drug Control Strategies 426

Legalization 433

Glossary 441

Subject Index 459

Name Index 473

Table of Cases 484