Part One GENERAL PRINCIPLES 3
1.THE FORMATION OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 3
The Character of the Formative Process 3
（a） International law as customary law 3
（b） The distinction between the general principles of law and custom 5
（c） The distinction between the substance of international law and the formal law-making instrumentality： the ambiguity of the word “sources” 7
（d） The distinction between practice and custom 8
“Implicit” International Law 9
（a） General principles of law 9
（b） Principles automatically part of international law and principles merely suited to incorporation in it 10
（c） Equity as a general principle 14
“Explicit” International Law 15
（a） The nature of customary law 15
（b） Acts necessary to create customary rules 17
（c） The distinction between lex lata and lex ferenda 19
（d） Comity 20
Law-Formative Agencies 21
（a） Treaties 21
（Ⅰ） Treaties as evidence of the law 22
（Ⅱ） The so-called “law-making” treaty 22
（b） Organisational action 25
（c） Codification 29
（d） Judicial decisions 31
（e） Text writings 35
2.THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTERNATIONAL LAW AND MUNICIPAL LAW 38
The Theory of the Relationship： Monism and Dualism 38
（a） Monism 39
（b） Dualism 42
（c） Inverted monism 42
（d） The theory of harmonisation 43
The Doctrine of the Courts on the Relationship of International Law and Municipal Law 46
（a） In international courts 46
（b） In municipal courts 49
（Ⅰ） The transformation doctrine 49
（Ⅱ） The adoption doctrine 49
（Ⅲ） The harmonisation doctrine 50
（c） The canons of harmonisation 51
（Ⅰ） The rules of construction 51
（Ⅱ） The rules of proof of law 53
（Ⅲ） Constitutional provisions for the supremacy of inter-national law in the event of conflict 53
The Problem of the Internal Operation of Treaties 54
Municipal Law Rules in the Relationship of International Law and Municipal Law 56
（a） English law systems 56
（Ⅰ） Relationship between common law and customary international law 56
（Ⅱ） Relationship between internal law and treaty operation 58
（b） The law of the United States 61
（Ⅰ） Relationship between internal law and customary international law 61
（Ⅱ） Relationship between internal law and treaty operation 62
（c） Civil law systems 65
（Ⅰ） France 65
（1） Relationship between internal law and customary international law 65
（2） Relationship between internal law and treaty operation 67
（Ⅱ） Italy 68
（1） Relationship between internal law and customary international law 68
（2） Relationship between internal law and treaty operation 70
（Ⅰ） Specific legislative enactments 70
（Ⅱ） Use of the executive order 70
（Ⅲ） Automatic adoption as provided under Article 10 . 70
2.THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTERNATIONAL LAW AND MUNICIPAL LAW—cont. 71
Municipal Law Rules in the Relationship of International Law and Municipal Law——cont. 71
（c） Civil Law systems——cont. 71
（Ⅲ） Germany 71
（1） Relationship between internal law and customary international law 71
（Ⅰ） The Empire 71
（Ⅱ） The Weimar Republic 72
（Ⅲ） The Federal Republic 72
（2） Relationship between internal law and treaty operation 74
（Ⅰ） The Empire 74
（Ⅱ） The Weimar Republic 75
（Ⅲ） The Federal Republic 75
（Ⅳ） Other civil law systems 76
Conclusion 79
3.PERSONALITY IN INTERNATIONAL LAW 80
The Problem of Terminology and Approach 80
Personality and the Concept of Sovereignty 83
（a） De facto insurgent governments 86
（Ⅰ） The character of a de facto government 86
（Ⅱ） The capacity of a de facto government to bind the State 89
（Ⅲ） The extent of the capacity of a de facto government 91
（1） The generality of the de facto government 92
（2） The generality of its acts 93
（b） International organisations 94
（Ⅰ） History of personality of international organisations 94
（Ⅱ） Cognisance of juristic personality of international organisations in municipal law 96
（Ⅲ） The functional approach to proving capacity in an international organisation 98
（Ⅳ） Consideration of function in the ascertainment of capacities 100
（1） The legal status of property and offices 100
（2） Immunities of functionaries 102
（3） Contractual capacity of international organisa-tions 103
（4） Territorial administrative capacity and peace-keeping 104
（c） The individual 106
（Ⅰ） Rights and duties of individuals under customary international law 106
（Ⅱ） Acquisition of rights by individuals under treaty 111
4.PROOF OF INTERNATIONAL FACT 114
English Law 114
（a） The use of the executive certificate 114
（b） The theoretical basis of certification 116
（c） The conclusiveness of an executive certificate 117
（d） The limits of certification 118
（e） Proof of international fact otherwise than by executive certification 119
The Law of the United States 119
（a） The use of the suggestion 119
（b） The conclusiveness of the suggestion 120
Civil Law Systems 122
Part Two RECOGNITION 127
5.THE THEORY AND MODES OF RECOGNITION 127
The Theory of Recognition 127
Types of Situation Calling for Recognition 128
The Independence of New States 128
（a） The problem of personality： the constitutive versus the declaratory schools 128
（b） The supposed duty to recognise a new State 131
（c） The conditions for recognition 132
Recognition of Change of Government 134
（a） Is formal recognition of change of government necessary？ The Estrada doctrine 134
（b） The supposed duty to recognise change of government； the qualifications for recognition 135
（Ⅰ） The qualification of effectiveness 136
（Ⅱ） The qualification of constitutional legitimacy： The Tobar doctrine and the Wilson policy 137
（Ⅲ） The qualification of willingness to fulfil international obligations 140
Recognition of Territorial Change 140
（a） History of recognition and non-recognition of territorial changes. 141
（b） Non-recognition of title founded in illegal act 146
（c） What is involved in non-recognition 147
Recognition of Belligerency 148
（a） The nature of recognition of belligerency.The constitutive and declaratory views 148
（b） The supposed distinction between recognition of belligerency and recognition of insurgency 151
5.THE THEORY AND MODES OF RECOGNITION——cont. 152
Types of Situation Calling for Recognition——cont. 152
Recognition of Belligerency——cont. 152
（c） The effect in municipal courts of non-recognition of belligerency 152
（d） The supposed duty to recognise belligerency 152
Modes of Recognition 153
The Form of Recognition： Implied Recognition 153
（a） The reception of diplomatic representatives 154
（b） The entry into treaty relationships with unrecognised govern-ments 155
（c） Recognition and membership of international organisations 155
（Ⅰ） Recognition of new States by international organisa-tions 157
（Ⅱ） Decision on credentials of rival governments 158
（d） Revocability of recognition 159
（e） Recognition of a government as the government de jure and recognition of a government as the government de facto 160
The Effects of Recognition and Non-Recognition Internationally 162
The Effects on Treaties 162
The Effect on Authorisation of Agency 163
The Effect on the Flag 164
The Effect on International Liability 164
Summary of Conclusions on Recognition 165
6.RECOGNITION AND NON-RECOGNITION AND THE COURTS 166
Judicial Cognisance of Unrecognised Governments 166
（a） English law 167
（Ⅰ） The unrecognised government as plaintiff 168
（Ⅱ） The unrecognised government as defendant 168
（Ⅲ） Cognisance of legal acts of an unrecognised government 168
（b） The law of the United States 172
（Ⅰ） Locus standi of unrecognised governments 172
（Ⅱ） Cognisance of legal acts of an unrecognised government 175
（c） Civil law systems 181
（Ⅰ） The unrecognised government as plaintiff 181
（Ⅱ） The unrecognised government as defendant 181
（Ⅲ） Cognisance of legal acts of an unrecognised govern-ment 182
（1） Personal status 182
（2） Acquired rights 182
Judicial Cognisance of Recognised Governments 183
Retroactivity of Recognition 185
（a） The principle of retroactivity 185
6.RECOGNITION AND NON-RECOGNITION AND THE COURTS——cont. 186
Retroactivity of Recognition——cont. 186
（b） The principle of retroactivity and the distinction between recognition of a government as the government de facto and recognition of a government as the government de jure 186
（c） Retroactivity and the co-incidence of two governments 186
（Ⅰ） Sovereign activity， intra- and extraterritorial， of the rival governments 186
（Ⅱ） Claims by the old government de jure arising before recognition 191
（Ⅲ） Judgments in favour of or against the old government 191
（d） The date to which the recognition is retroactive 191
Part Three TREATIES 195
7.THE MAKING OF TREATIES 195
The Categories of Treaties 195
Types and Nomenclature of Treaties 195
（a） Charter， covenant， constitution， pact and statute 196
（b） Treaty， convention， act 197
（c） Protocol 197
（d） Declaration 198
（e） Agreement， arrangement， exchange of notes， etc. 201
（f） Pactum de contrahendo 202
（g） Oral agreements 202
（h） Agreed minutes 203
（i） Contracts ostensibly of private character.Whether the direct interest of the State assimilates them to treaties 204
The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 205
The Tests for Determining What is a Treaty 205
The Differing Usages in International Law and Municipal Law of the Terms “Treaty” and “Agreement”： The Executive Agreement in the Law of the United States 206
Annex： Select List of Executive Agreements 208
The Process of Treaty Making 210
The Parties to a Treaty 210
The Signature of Treaties 210
（a） Full Powers 211
（Ⅰ） The theory of Full Powers 211
（Ⅱ） Relationship between Full Powers and credentials 213
（Ⅲ） Legal nature of Full Powers 213
（Ⅳ） The distinction between General and Special Full Powers 214
7.THE MAKING OF TREATIES——cont. 214
The Process of Treaty Making——cont. 214
The Signature of Treaties——cont. 214
（b） Who has inherent capacity to sign a treaty？ 214
（Ⅰ） United States practice 214
（Ⅱ） United Kingdom practice 214
（Ⅲ） The categories of persons regarded by international law as having inherent power to contract 215
（c） Ultra vires signature 216
（Ⅰ） Signature by unauthorised agents or in excess of authority 217
（Ⅱ） Signature in excess of constitutional powers 219
Ratification 220
（a） The discretionary character of ratification 220
（b） When ratification is required 222
（c） The legal nature of an unratified treaty 222
（d） The necessity for ratification 224
（e） Deposit of ratifications： The date of coming into force 225
（f） The non-retroactivity of ratification 225
Accession and Adhesion 229
Reservations to Treaties 229
（a） The theory of reservations 229
（b） Must the right to reserve be express in the convention？ 232
（c） The criteria for determining the right to reserve and the right to object to reservations 233
（d） Must other States party to the convention consent explicitly to a reservation in order to bind themselves vis-a-vis the reserving State ？ 234
（e） The distinction between general and limited reservations 236
（f） Does an incompatible reservation frustrate adherence to the treaty altogether， or is the reserving State a party without benefit of the reservation？ 237
（g） Summary of conclusions on reservations 238
（h） Interpretative reservations 239
（i） Withdrawal of reservations 239
The Effect of Duress and Error 239
The Effect of Invalidity 241
Registration of Treaties 241
Deposit of Treaties 243
Ius Cogens 244
8.THE OPERATION OF TREATIES 246
The Effects of a Treaty 246
Most-Favoured-Nation Clauses 248
The Interpretation of Treaties 251
8.THE OPERATION OF TREATIES——cont. 253
The Interpretation of Treaties——cont. 253
（a） Interpretation by reference to matters intrinsic in the terms of the treaty 253
（b） Interpretation by reference to matters extrinsic to the terms of the treaty 259
（Ⅰ） Resort to the preamble： the “purposes” and “prin-ciples” of an organisation 259
（Ⅱ） Resort to treaties in pari materii 260
（Ⅲ） Resort to the common interpretation of the parties 261
（Ⅳ） Resort to customary international law 261
（Ⅴ） Resort to traditional policies and practices of a signatory 261
（Ⅵ） By reference to the situation of the parties at the time the treaty was contracted 262
（Ⅶ） Resort to “travaux preparatoires” 262
（c） Interpretation of treaties by municipal courts 264
Termination of Treaties 265
（a） Execution 265
（b） According to the terms 266
（c） Mutual consent 266
（d） Desuetude 266
（e） Denunciation 266
（f） Loss of personality of a party 268
（g） War 268
（h） Supersession of treaties through conflict 272
（Ⅰ） Inconsistency between treaties of the same order 272
（Ⅱ） Inconsistency between treaties of “higher” and “lower” order 274
（Ⅲ） The compatibility of most-favoured-nation clauses and customs unions 274
（i） Impossibility of performance 277
Severability of Treaty Clauses 277
Revision of Treaties 278
The Rebus sic Stantibus Doctrine 278
Status of Lapsed Treaties 280
Part FourSO VEREIGNTY 283
9.THE LEGAL CONCEPT OF THE STATE 283
The Definition of State in International Law 283
The Problem of Definition 283
The Attributes of Statehood 284
9.THE LEGAL CONCEPT OF THE STATE——cont. 285
The Definition of “State” for the Purposes of International Organisa-tion 285
（a） Membership of the League of Nations and United Nations 285
（b） Membership of the Specialised Agencies and other inter-national organisations 286
（Ⅰ） Organisations open to sovereign States 286
（Ⅱ） Organisations open to dependent territories 287
（c） Debated qualications for membership 287
（d） “States” in the settlement of disputes by the Security Council 288
Sovereign Entities which are Not Typical States 289
（a） The Vatican and the Papacy 289
（b） San Marino， Monaco and Andorra 290
（c） Neutralised States： Switzerland and Austria 291
（d） Cyprus 292
Unions 293
（a） Personal unions 293
（b） Real unions 294
（c） Economic unions 294
Federal States 295
The Fundamental Rights of States 297
Independence. 298
（a） Definition of “independence” 298
（b） The content of independence 299
（Ⅰ） The rule against intervention by other States 299
（Ⅱ） So-called “economic intervention” 300
（Ⅲ） Distinction between aid to the de jure government and aid to rebels 301
（Ⅳ） Belligerent action in pursuance of legal redress 302
（Ⅴ） Non-belligerent action in pursuance of legal redress 304
（Ⅵ） Summary of rules on non-intervention 304
（c） The Monroe Doctrine 306
（d） The rule against intervention by the United Nations 308
（Ⅰ） The expression “intervene” 308
（1） Does the inclusion of an item in the agenda consti-tute intervention？ 308
（2） Does a recommendation constitute interven-tion ？ 309
（3） Does the examination of the domestic policy of a member constitute intervention？ 309
（4） Must the Security Council settle the question of competence under Chapter Ⅶ before taking action which might prejudice domestic jurisdic-tion ？ 310
9.THE LEGAL CONCEPT OF THE STATE——cont. 310
The Definition of “State” for the Purpose of International Organisa-tion——cont. 310
Independence——cont. 310
（d） The rule against intervention by the United Nations——cont. 310
（Ⅱ） The expression “matters essentially within the domestic jurisdiction” 310
（1） Can a matter governed by international law be within the reserved domain？ 311
（2） Can a matter under the United Nations Charter be within the reserved domain？ 311
（Ⅰ） Charter provisions on human rights 312
（Ⅱ） Charter provisions on self-determination 312
（Ⅲ） Charter provisions on the maintenance of peace 313
（e） Non-intervention and friendly relations among States 313
Self-Defence 315
（a） The problem of defining self-defence 315
（b） Self-defence as defined in Article 51， United Nations Charter 316
（c） Self-defence and legal redress 318
（d） The content of the right of self-defence 318
（e） Collective self-defence 319
Legal Equality 320
（a） The problem of defining “equality” 320
（b） Is equality a legal conception？ 321
（c） The legal content of equality 322
（d） The majority vote principle in international organisations 324
10.TITULAR， RESIDUAL AND DISTRIBUTED SOVEREIGNTY 325
Examples of Titular， Residual and Distributed Sovereignty 325
（a） The Ryukyu Islands， 1945- 325
（b） The Panama Canal Zone 326
Condominium 327
Leases 328
Trust Territories 330
（a） The mandate and trust systems 330
（b） Sovereignty in mandated and trust territories 332
（c） Nationality in mandated and trust territories 334
（d） United Nations action on colonialism 335
（e） Are the Administering Authorities obliged to implement the recommendations of the General Assembly and Trusteeship Council？ 336
（f） The trusteeship agreements 337
（g） The responsibilities and functions of the United Nations in relation to the administration of South West Africa 339
10.TITULAR， RESIDUAL AND DISTRIBUTED SOVEREIGNTY——cont. 341
Trust Territories——cont. 341
（h） Administrative union of trust and other territories 341
Protectorate 341
The Associated States 344
11.THE COMMONWEALTH， THE FRANCOPHONE SYSTEM AND THE NETHERLANDS REALM 346
The Commonwealth 346
The Colonial Period 346
The Transitional Period 348
The Inter-Se Doctrine 350
The Present Position 350
Commonwealth Preference 352
（a） The Admiralty jurisdiction in the British Commonwealth 353
（Ⅰ） The Admiralty jurisdiction 354
（Ⅱ） Jurisdiction of colonial courts 354
（Ⅲ） The British Commonwealth 355
The French Community and System of Co-operation 356
The Franc Zone 359
The Netherlands Realm 359
Part Five SUCCESSION 365
12.STATE SUCCESSION 365
Definition of State Succession 365
The Relationship between State Continuity and State Succession 366
The Theory of State Succession 367
Effect of Change of Sovereignty on Treaties 368
（a） Personal treaties 368
（b） Assignment of treaties 371
（c） Dispositive treaties 373
（d） Multilateral treaties 374
（e） Extension of treaties of the successor State to territory incor-porated in it 376
Effect of Change of Sovereignty on Acquired Rights 377
（a） The definition of “acquired rights” 377
（b） Protection of acquired rights and the doctrine of Act of State 378
（c） The extent of protection of acquired rights 379
12.STATE SUCCESSION——cont. 381
Effect of Change of Sovereignty on Contractual Obligations of the Predecessor State 381
（a） Subrogation， frustration， restitution 381
（b） Economic concessions 382
（c） Administrative contracts 383
Effect of Change of Sovereignty on the National Debt 383
（a） The national debt 384
（b） Localised debts 385
（c） Local debts 385
Effect of Change on Sovereignty on Delictual Claims 386
Effect of Change of Sovereignty on the Public Domain 387
Effect of Change of Sovereignty on the Legal and Judicial System 388
Effect of Change of Sovereignty on the Administration 390
Effect of Change of Sovereignty on the Nationality of the Inhabitants of Absorbed Territory 391
13.SUCCESSION OF GOVERNMENTS 394
14.SUCCESSION OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS 396
Part Six TERRITORY 403
15.TERRITORY 403
Relationship between Territory and Sovereignty 403
The Distinction between Imperium and Dominium： The Theory of Territory 403
Acquisition of Territory 405
The Problem of Characterisation of Sovereign Acts in the Acquisi-tion of Territory： Definition of Occupation， Prescription and Historic Rights 405
Modes of Acquisition 408
（a） Occupation 408
（Ⅰ） History of the doctrine： the value of discovery 408
（Ⅱ） The concept of effectiveness in occupation 409
（1） Acts necessary to prove sovereignty 409
（2） Relativity of probative value of sovereign acts to circumstances of particular territories 411
（3） Extent of title based on occupation 413
（4） The distinction between immediate occupation and occupation by consolidation 415
（5） The distinction between title by occupation and inchoate title 416
15.TERRITORY——cont. 417
Acquisition of Territory——cont. 417
Modes of Acquisition——cont. 417
（a） Occupation——cont. 417
（Ⅱ） The concept of effectiveness in occupation——cont. 417
（6） The Act of Berlin 1885 417
（7） Significance of unauthorised acts of private persons 417
（Ⅲ） The importance of the conception of contiguity 419
（b） Historic rights 421
（c） Prescription 422
（Ⅰ） The nature of prescriptive title 422
（Ⅱ） The conduct required of both parties to a prescriptive claim 423
（Ⅲ） The relevance of absence of protest 424
（Ⅳ） The doctrine of uti possidetis in South and Central America and the theory of constructive possession 426
（Ⅴ） Settlement of boundary disputes on the basis of treaty and conduct 427
（d） Accretion 428
（Ⅰ） Deltas and other natural appendages 428
（Ⅱ） Accretion， avulsion and the change of riverbed 429
（e） Annexation 431
（Ⅰ） Whether annexation is still a mode of acquisition in international law 431
（Ⅱ） The distinction between conquest and annexation 432
（Ⅲ） The forms of annexation 433
（Ⅳ） The conditions for annexation： premature annexation 435
（f） Cession 436
（Ⅰ） Modes of cession 436
（Ⅱ） The question of delivery 437
（Ⅲ） Jurisdictional authority up to the moment of delivery 438
（Ⅳ） Cession by native princes 440
（g） Debellatio 441
（Ⅰ） The Status of Germany after 1945 441
（Ⅱ） The Status of Berlin 1948- 442
Loss of Territory 443
Revolt and Secession 443
Dereliction 444
（a） Conversion to terra nullius 444
（b） Dereliction by treaty and the problem of succession to sovereignty 445
Polar Regions 448
The Arctic 448
Antarctica 450
16.MARITIME TERRITORY 454
The Territorial Sea 454
Historical Introduction 454
（a） The seventeenth century 455
（b） The eighteenth century 456
（c） The nineteenth century 457
（d） The Arbitrations 458
（e） The conferences on the territorial sea 459
The Extent of Coastal Claims 461
The Juridical Character of the Territorial Sea 467
（a） The theories on the subject 467
（Ⅰ） The territorial sea as an aggregation of jurisdictional rights 467
（Ⅱ） The territorial sea as a subject of sovereignty but out-side the national boundary 467
（Ⅲ） The territorial sea as a bundle of servitudes 468
（Ⅳ） The territorial sea as a subject of conservation rights 468
（Ⅴ） The territorial sea as part of the public domain 468
（b） The juridical character of the territorial sea in international law 469
（c） The juridical character of the territorial sea in municipal law 469
（Ⅰ） English law 470
（1） Judicial decisions on the extent of the realm 470
（2） The Territorial Waters Jurisdiction Act 1878 471
（3） The application of the decision in r.v.Keyn to Canada， India and Australia 472
（Ⅱ） The law of the United States： the Tidelands Dispute 473
（Ⅲ） Civil law systems 475
Measurement of the Territorial Sea 475
（a） The technique of measurement 475
（b） The boundary between two States 476
（c） The base for measurement 476
（d） Measurement from rocks and islands 480
（Ⅰ） What is an island？ 480
（Ⅱ） Islands within and outside the territorial sea 481
（Ⅲ） Artificial constructions 482
（Ⅳ） Archipelagos 482
The Distinction between the Territorial Sea and Internal Waters 483
Bays 484
The Problem of Dening a Bay in International Law 484
（a） The visual test 484
（b） The effective control test 486
（c） The geographical test 486
The Criterion of “Bay” in Constitutional Law： The Relation be-tween the Definition in Municipal Law and in International Law 488
16.MARITIME TERRITORY——cont. 490
Bays——cont. 490
The Supposed Criterion of Historic Bays 490
The Geographical Criterion in Modern International Law 493
（a） Pre-Geneva Conference 1958 493
（b） The criterion in the Final Act of the Geneva Conference 1958 494
Straits 495
What is a Strait？ 495
The Right of Innocent Passage through Straits 498
Actual Regimes of Straits 501
（a） Straits of Gibraltar 501
（b） Straits of Magellan 501
（c） The Danish Straits 501
（d） The Bosphorus and Dardanelles 501
The Continental Shelf 503
The History of the Topic 503
The Continental Shelf as a Geographical Phenomenon 504
Rights in Respect of the Continental Shelf 505
The Proclamations 505
The Extent of the Continental Shelf 509
Division of the Continental Shelf 511
（a） Opposite States 511
（b） Adjacent States 512
Continental Shelves of Islands 513
Legislation Respecting the Continental Shelf 513
（a） The United Kingdom Continental Shelf Act 1964 513
（b） The United States Territorial Waters and Continental Shelf Fishery Act 1964 514
The resources of the Continental Shelf 514
The Seabed of High Seas 515
17.AIRSPACE AND AIR LAW 518
Airspace 518
The Juridical Character of Airspace 518
Classification of Aircraft for the Purposes of Regulation 520
The Law Applicable to Aircraft in Flight 524
（a） The Tokyo Convention on Offences and certain Other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft 1963 525
（b） United Kingdom law 526
（c） United States law 527
The Chicago Convention 1944 527
The Warsaw Convention 1929 528
（a） International carriage 528
（b） Limitation of liability and the burden of proof 530
17.AIRSPACE AND AIR LAW——cont. 532
Airspace——cont. 532
The Warsaw Convention 1929——cont. 532
（c） Liability under Article 25 532
（d） The Guadalajara Convention supplementing the Warsaw Convention 1961 534
（e） Judicial jurisdiction under the Warsaw Convention 534
The Rome Convention on Damage Caused by Foreign Aircraft to Third Parties on the Surface 535
Outer Space 536
Application of the Chicago Convention to Space Bodies 539
Liability for Damage Caused by Space Vehicles 540
18.RIGHTS IN RESPECT OF FOREIGN TERRITORY 544
International Servitudes 544
The Terminology and Substance of “Servitude” 544
The Elements of a Servitude 547
Types of Servitudes 547
（a） Freedom of transit 547
（b） Economic use of waters 549
（c） Customs-free zones 549
（d） Fishery rights 550
（e） Demilitarised and neutralised areas 551
（f） Other localised rights 551
Customary Restraints on Sovereignty 552
The Significance of Analogous Instances 552
（a） Freedom of access and transit 552
（b） Access to enclaves 553
（c） Access to the sea 553
The Law Relating Generally to Transit 554
The Conditions of Access and Transit 555
International Rivers 556
Definition of an International River 556
Possible Legal Regimes of International Rivers 557
Control of Waters 558
（a） The Nile 560
（b） The Columbia River 561
（c） Middle East rivers 562
（d） International action on control of waters 562
（e） The principle of “equitable apportionment” 563
Navigation 565
（a） History of river internationalisation 565
（b） Whether there is a customary rule of freedom of navigation 567
（c） The Barcelona Convention 1921 569
18.RIGHTS IN RESPECT OF FOREIGN TERRITORY——cont. 570
International Rivers——cont. 570
Navigation——cont. 570
（d） Actual navigation rights on international rivers 570
（Ⅰ） European and African rivers 571
（1） The Rhine 571
（2） The Danube 572
（3） The Scheldt 574
（4） The Po 574
（5） The Vistula 574
（6） The Elbe， the Oder and the Niemen 575
（7） African rivers 575
（8） The Mekong 576
（Ⅱ） The rivers of the American Hemisphere 576
（1） The Mississippi 576
（2） The St.Lawrence 577
（3） The Alaskan rivers 578
（4） The St.John 578
（5） The Columbia 578
（6） The Colorado and the Rio Grande 578
（7） The Amazon. 578
（8） The Orinoco 579
（9） The Plate 579
The River as an International Boundary 579
Interoceanic Canals 580
The Process of Internationalisation 580
The Incidents of Internationalisation 581
（a） Merchant ships 582
（b） Warships 582
The Actual Regime of Canals 582
（a） Suez Canal 582
（Ⅰ） The Convention of 1888. 584
（Ⅱ） The practice since 1888 585
（b） Panama Canal 587
（c） Kiel Canal 589
International Law of Telecommunications 590
Obligations in Respect of Foreign Territory 591
The Standard of Care 591
River Pollution 593
Nuclear Damage 593
（a） The Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 1963 593
（b） Treaty liability for nuclear damage 594
（c） Treaty on non-proliferation of nuclear weapons 594
Part Seven JURISDICTION 599
19.THE THEORY OF JURISDICTION 599
20.MARITIME JURISDICTION 604
21.PERSONAL JURISDICTION： NATIONALITY 670
22.PERSONAL JURISDICTION： ALIENS 693
23.PERSONAL JURISDICTION： EXTRADITION AND ASYLUM 720
24.PERSONAL JURISDICTION： HUMAN RIGHTS 742
25.JURISDICTION WITH RESPECT TO ALIEN ACQUIRED RIGHTS 762
26.EXTENT OF OPERATION OF SOVEREIGN ACTS 794
Part Eight IMMUNITY FROM JURISDICTION 799
27.SOVEREIGN IMMUNITY 841
28.DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR PRIVILEGES AND IMMUNITIES 887
Part Nine STATE RESPONSIBILITY 941
29.THE THEORY OF STATE RESPONSIBILITY 941
30.STATE RESPONSIBILITY： THE TORT SITUATION 962
31.STATE RESPONSIBILITY： THE CONTRACT SITUATION 976
32.RESPONSIBILITY WITH RESPECT TO MONETARY SOVFREIGNTY 1011
Part Ten INTERNATIONAL LITIGATION 1029
33.THE CLAIM 1029
34.THE TRIBUNAL 1068
35.THE HEARING 1090
36.REPARATION FOR INTERNATIONAL WRONGS 1114
Tables and Indices 1127