INTERNATIONAL LAW VOLUME ONE SECOND EDITIONPDF电子书下载

Part One GENERAL PRINCIPLES 3

1.THE FORMATION OF INTERNATIONAL LAW 3

The Character of the Formative Process 3

（a） International law as customary law 3

（b） The distinction between the general principles of law and custom 5

（c） The distinction between the substance of international law and the formal law-making instrumentality： the ambiguity of the word “sources” 7

（d） The distinction between practice and custom 8

“Implicit” International Law 9

（a） General principles of law 9

（b） Principles automatically part of international law and principles merely suited to incorporation in it 10

（c） Equity as a general principle 14

“Explicit” International Law 15

（a） The nature of customary law 15

（b） Acts necessary to create customary rules 17

（c） The distinction between lex lata and lex ferenda 19

（d） Comity 20

Law-Formative Agencies 21

（a） Treaties 21

（Ⅰ） Treaties as evidence of the law 22

（Ⅱ） The so-called “law-making” treaty 22

（b） Organisational action 25

（c） Codification 29

（d） Judicial decisions 31

（e） Text writings 35

2.THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTERNATIONAL LAW AND MUNICIPAL LAW 38

The Theory of the Relationship： Monism and Dualism 38

（a） Monism 39

（b） Dualism 42

（c） Inverted monism 42

（d） The theory of harmonisation 43

The Doctrine of the Courts on the Relationship of International Law and Municipal Law 46

（a） In international courts 46

（b） In municipal courts 49

（Ⅰ） The transformation doctrine 49

（Ⅱ） The adoption doctrine 49

（Ⅲ） The harmonisation doctrine 50

（c） The canons of harmonisation 51

（Ⅰ） The rules of construction 51

（Ⅱ） The rules of proof of law 53

（Ⅲ） Constitutional provisions for the supremacy of inter-national law in the event of conflict 53

The Problem of the Internal Operation of Treaties 54

Municipal Law Rules in the Relationship of International Law and Municipal Law 56

（a） English law systems 56

（Ⅰ） Relationship between common law and customary international law 56

（Ⅱ） Relationship between internal law and treaty operation 58

（b） The law of the United States 61

（Ⅰ） Relationship between internal law and customary international law 61

（Ⅱ） Relationship between internal law and treaty operation 62

（c） Civil law systems 65

（Ⅰ） France 65

（1） Relationship between internal law and customary international law 65

（2） Relationship between internal law and treaty operation 67

（Ⅱ） Italy 68

（1） Relationship between internal law and customary international law 68

（2） Relationship between internal law and treaty operation 70

（Ⅰ） Specific legislative enactments 70

（Ⅱ） Use of the executive order 70

（Ⅲ） Automatic adoption as provided under Article 10 . 70

2.THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTERNATIONAL LAW AND MUNICIPAL LAW—cont. 71

Municipal Law Rules in the Relationship of International Law and Municipal Law——cont. 71

（c） Civil Law systems——cont. 71

（Ⅲ） Germany 71

（1） Relationship between internal law and customary international law 71

（Ⅰ） The Empire 71

（Ⅱ） The Weimar Republic 72

（Ⅲ） The Federal Republic 72

（2） Relationship between internal law and treaty operation 74

（Ⅰ） The Empire 74

（Ⅱ） The Weimar Republic 75

（Ⅲ） The Federal Republic 75

（Ⅳ） Other civil law systems 76

Conclusion 79

3.PERSONALITY IN INTERNATIONAL LAW 80

The Problem of Terminology and Approach 80

Personality and the Concept of Sovereignty 83

（a） De facto insurgent governments 86

（Ⅰ） The character of a de facto government 86

（Ⅱ） The capacity of a de facto government to bind the State 89

（Ⅲ） The extent of the capacity of a de facto government 91

（1） The generality of the de facto government 92

（2） The generality of its acts 93

（b） International organisations 94

（Ⅰ） History of personality of international organisations 94

（Ⅱ） Cognisance of juristic personality of international organisations in municipal law 96

（Ⅲ） The functional approach to proving capacity in an international organisation 98

（Ⅳ） Consideration of function in the ascertainment of capacities 100

（1） The legal status of property and offices 100

（2） Immunities of functionaries 102

（3） Contractual capacity of international organisa-tions 103

（4） Territorial administrative capacity and peace-keeping 104

（c） The individual 106

（Ⅰ） Rights and duties of individuals under customary international law 106

（Ⅱ） Acquisition of rights by individuals under treaty 111

4.PROOF OF INTERNATIONAL FACT 114

English Law 114

（a） The use of the executive certificate 114

（b） The theoretical basis of certification 116

（c） The conclusiveness of an executive certificate 117

（d） The limits of certification 118

（e） Proof of international fact otherwise than by executive certification 119

The Law of the United States 119

（a） The use of the suggestion 119

（b） The conclusiveness of the suggestion 120

Civil Law Systems 122

Part Two RECOGNITION 127

5.THE THEORY AND MODES OF RECOGNITION 127

The Theory of Recognition 127

Types of Situation Calling for Recognition 128

The Independence of New States 128

（a） The problem of personality： the constitutive versus the declaratory schools 128

（b） The supposed duty to recognise a new State 131

（c） The conditions for recognition 132

Recognition of Change of Government 134

（a） Is formal recognition of change of government necessary？ The Estrada doctrine 134

（b） The supposed duty to recognise change of government； the qualifications for recognition 135

（Ⅰ） The qualification of effectiveness 136

（Ⅱ） The qualification of constitutional legitimacy： The Tobar doctrine and the Wilson policy 137

（Ⅲ） The qualification of willingness to fulfil international obligations 140

Recognition of Territorial Change 140

（a） History of recognition and non-recognition of territorial changes. 141

（b） Non-recognition of title founded in illegal act 146

（c） What is involved in non-recognition 147

Recognition of Belligerency 148

（a） The nature of recognition of belligerency.The constitutive and declaratory views 148

（b） The supposed distinction between recognition of belligerency and recognition of insurgency 151

5.THE THEORY AND MODES OF RECOGNITION——cont. 152

Types of Situation Calling for Recognition——cont. 152

Recognition of Belligerency——cont. 152

（c） The effect in municipal courts of non-recognition of belligerency 152

（d） The supposed duty to recognise belligerency 152

Modes of Recognition 153

The Form of Recognition： Implied Recognition 153

（a） The reception of diplomatic representatives 154

（b） The entry into treaty relationships with unrecognised govern-ments 155

（c） Recognition and membership of international organisations 155

（Ⅰ） Recognition of new States by international organisa-tions 157

（Ⅱ） Decision on credentials of rival governments 158

（d） Revocability of recognition 159

（e） Recognition of a government as the government de jure and recognition of a government as the government de facto 160

The Effects of Recognition and Non-Recognition Internationally 162

The Effects on Treaties 162

The Effect on Authorisation of Agency 163

The Effect on the Flag 164

The Effect on International Liability 164

Summary of Conclusions on Recognition 165

6.RECOGNITION AND NON-RECOGNITION AND THE COURTS 166

Judicial Cognisance of Unrecognised Governments 166

（a） English law 167

（Ⅰ） The unrecognised government as plaintiff 168

（Ⅱ） The unrecognised government as defendant 168

（Ⅲ） Cognisance of legal acts of an unrecognised government 168

（b） The law of the United States 172

（Ⅰ） Locus standi of unrecognised governments 172

（Ⅱ） Cognisance of legal acts of an unrecognised government 175

（c） Civil law systems 181

（Ⅰ） The unrecognised government as plaintiff 181

（Ⅱ） The unrecognised government as defendant 181

（Ⅲ） Cognisance of legal acts of an unrecognised govern-ment 182

（1） Personal status 182

（2） Acquired rights 182

Judicial Cognisance of Recognised Governments 183

Retroactivity of Recognition 185

（a） The principle of retroactivity 185

6.RECOGNITION AND NON-RECOGNITION AND THE COURTS——cont. 186

Retroactivity of Recognition——cont. 186

（b） The principle of retroactivity and the distinction between recognition of a government as the government de facto and recognition of a government as the government de jure 186

（c） Retroactivity and the co-incidence of two governments 186

（Ⅰ） Sovereign activity， intra- and extraterritorial， of the rival governments 186

（Ⅱ） Claims by the old government de jure arising before recognition 191

（Ⅲ） Judgments in favour of or against the old government 191

（d） The date to which the recognition is retroactive 191

Part Three TREATIES 195

7.THE MAKING OF TREATIES 195

The Categories of Treaties 195

Types and Nomenclature of Treaties 195

（a） Charter， covenant， constitution， pact and statute 196

（b） Treaty， convention， act 197

（c） Protocol 197

（d） Declaration 198

（e） Agreement， arrangement， exchange of notes， etc. 201

（f） Pactum de contrahendo 202

（g） Oral agreements 202

（h） Agreed minutes 203

（i） Contracts ostensibly of private character.Whether the direct interest of the State assimilates them to treaties 204

The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 205

The Tests for Determining What is a Treaty 205

The Differing Usages in International Law and Municipal Law of the Terms “Treaty” and “Agreement”： The Executive Agreement in the Law of the United States 206

Annex： Select List of Executive Agreements 208

The Process of Treaty Making 210

The Parties to a Treaty 210

The Signature of Treaties 210

（a） Full Powers 211

（Ⅰ） The theory of Full Powers 211

（Ⅱ） Relationship between Full Powers and credentials 213

（Ⅲ） Legal nature of Full Powers 213

（Ⅳ） The distinction between General and Special Full Powers 214

7.THE MAKING OF TREATIES——cont. 214

The Process of Treaty Making——cont. 214

The Signature of Treaties——cont. 214

（b） Who has inherent capacity to sign a treaty？ 214

（Ⅰ） United States practice 214

（Ⅱ） United Kingdom practice 214

（Ⅲ） The categories of persons regarded by international law as having inherent power to contract 215

（c） Ultra vires signature 216

（Ⅰ） Signature by unauthorised agents or in excess of authority 217

（Ⅱ） Signature in excess of constitutional powers 219

Ratification 220

（a） The discretionary character of ratification 220

（b） When ratification is required 222

（c） The legal nature of an unratified treaty 222

（d） The necessity for ratification 224

（e） Deposit of ratifications： The date of coming into force 225

（f） The non-retroactivity of ratification 225

Accession and Adhesion 229

Reservations to Treaties 229

（a） The theory of reservations 229

（b） Must the right to reserve be express in the convention？ 232

（c） The criteria for determining the right to reserve and the right to object to reservations 233

（d） Must other States party to the convention consent explicitly to a reservation in order to bind themselves vis-a-vis the reserving State ？ 234

（e） The distinction between general and limited reservations 236

（f） Does an incompatible reservation frustrate adherence to the treaty altogether， or is the reserving State a party without benefit of the reservation？ 237

（g） Summary of conclusions on reservations 238

（h） Interpretative reservations 239

（i） Withdrawal of reservations 239

The Effect of Duress and Error 239

The Effect of Invalidity 241

Registration of Treaties 241

Deposit of Treaties 243

Ius Cogens 244

8.THE OPERATION OF TREATIES 246

The Effects of a Treaty 246

Most-Favoured-Nation Clauses 248

The Interpretation of Treaties 251

8.THE OPERATION OF TREATIES——cont. 253

The Interpretation of Treaties——cont. 253

（a） Interpretation by reference to matters intrinsic in the terms of the treaty 253

（b） Interpretation by reference to matters extrinsic to the terms of the treaty 259

（Ⅰ） Resort to the preamble： the “purposes” and “prin-ciples” of an organisation 259

（Ⅱ） Resort to treaties in pari materii 260

（Ⅲ） Resort to the common interpretation of the parties 261

（Ⅳ） Resort to customary international law 261

（Ⅴ） Resort to traditional policies and practices of a signatory 261

（Ⅵ） By reference to the situation of the parties at the time the treaty was contracted 262

（Ⅶ） Resort to “travaux preparatoires” 262

（c） Interpretation of treaties by municipal courts 264

Termination of Treaties 265

（a） Execution 265

（b） According to the terms 266

（c） Mutual consent 266

（d） Desuetude 266

（e） Denunciation 266

（f） Loss of personality of a party 268

（g） War 268

（h） Supersession of treaties through conflict 272

（Ⅰ） Inconsistency between treaties of the same order 272

（Ⅱ） Inconsistency between treaties of “higher” and “lower” order 274

（Ⅲ） The compatibility of most-favoured-nation clauses and customs unions 274

（i） Impossibility of performance 277

Severability of Treaty Clauses 277

Revision of Treaties 278

The Rebus sic Stantibus Doctrine 278

Status of Lapsed Treaties 280

Part FourSO VEREIGNTY 283

9.THE LEGAL CONCEPT OF THE STATE 283

The Definition of State in International Law 283

The Problem of Definition 283

The Attributes of Statehood 284

9.THE LEGAL CONCEPT OF THE STATE——cont. 285

The Definition of “State” for the Purposes of International Organisa-tion 285

（a） Membership of the League of Nations and United Nations 285

（b） Membership of the Specialised Agencies and other inter-national organisations 286

（Ⅰ） Organisations open to sovereign States 286

（Ⅱ） Organisations open to dependent territories 287

（c） Debated qualications for membership 287

（d） “States” in the settlement of disputes by the Security Council 288

Sovereign Entities which are Not Typical States 289

（a） The Vatican and the Papacy 289

（b） San Marino， Monaco and Andorra 290

（c） Neutralised States： Switzerland and Austria 291

（d） Cyprus 292

Unions 293

（a） Personal unions 293

（b） Real unions 294

（c） Economic unions 294

Federal States 295

The Fundamental Rights of States 297

Independence. 298

（a） Definition of “independence” 298

（b） The content of independence 299

（Ⅰ） The rule against intervention by other States 299

（Ⅱ） So-called “economic intervention” 300

（Ⅲ） Distinction between aid to the de jure government and aid to rebels 301

（Ⅳ） Belligerent action in pursuance of legal redress 302

（Ⅴ） Non-belligerent action in pursuance of legal redress 304

（Ⅵ） Summary of rules on non-intervention 304

（c） The Monroe Doctrine 306

（d） The rule against intervention by the United Nations 308

（Ⅰ） The expression “intervene” 308

（1） Does the inclusion of an item in the agenda consti-tute intervention？ 308

（2） Does a recommendation constitute interven-tion ？ 309

（3） Does the examination of the domestic policy of a member constitute intervention？ 309

（4） Must the Security Council settle the question of competence under Chapter Ⅶ before taking action which might prejudice domestic jurisdic-tion ？ 310

9.THE LEGAL CONCEPT OF THE STATE——cont. 310

The Definition of “State” for the Purpose of International Organisa-tion——cont. 310

Independence——cont. 310

（d） The rule against intervention by the United Nations——cont. 310

（Ⅱ） The expression “matters essentially within the domestic jurisdiction” 310

（1） Can a matter governed by international law be within the reserved domain？ 311

（2） Can a matter under the United Nations Charter be within the reserved domain？ 311

（Ⅰ） Charter provisions on human rights 312

（Ⅱ） Charter provisions on self-determination 312

（Ⅲ） Charter provisions on the maintenance of peace 313

（e） Non-intervention and friendly relations among States 313

Self-Defence 315

（a） The problem of defining self-defence 315

（b） Self-defence as defined in Article 51， United Nations Charter 316

（c） Self-defence and legal redress 318

（d） The content of the right of self-defence 318

（e） Collective self-defence 319

Legal Equality 320

（a） The problem of defining “equality” 320

（b） Is equality a legal conception？ 321

（c） The legal content of equality 322

（d） The majority vote principle in international organisations 324

10.TITULAR， RESIDUAL AND DISTRIBUTED SOVEREIGNTY 325

Examples of Titular， Residual and Distributed Sovereignty 325

（a） The Ryukyu Islands， 1945- 325

（b） The Panama Canal Zone 326

Condominium 327

Leases 328

Trust Territories 330

（a） The mandate and trust systems 330

（b） Sovereignty in mandated and trust territories 332

（c） Nationality in mandated and trust territories 334

（d） United Nations action on colonialism 335

（e） Are the Administering Authorities obliged to implement the recommendations of the General Assembly and Trusteeship Council？ 336

（f） The trusteeship agreements 337

（g） The responsibilities and functions of the United Nations in relation to the administration of South West Africa 339

10.TITULAR， RESIDUAL AND DISTRIBUTED SOVEREIGNTY——cont. 341

Trust Territories——cont. 341

（h） Administrative union of trust and other territories 341

Protectorate 341

The Associated States 344

11.THE COMMONWEALTH， THE FRANCOPHONE SYSTEM AND THE NETHERLANDS REALM 346

The Commonwealth 346

The Colonial Period 346

The Transitional Period 348

The Inter-Se Doctrine 350

The Present Position 350

Commonwealth Preference 352

（a） The Admiralty jurisdiction in the British Commonwealth 353

（Ⅰ） The Admiralty jurisdiction 354

（Ⅱ） Jurisdiction of colonial courts 354

（Ⅲ） The British Commonwealth 355

The French Community and System of Co-operation 356

The Franc Zone 359

The Netherlands Realm 359

Part Five SUCCESSION 365

12.STATE SUCCESSION 365

Definition of State Succession 365

The Relationship between State Continuity and State Succession 366

The Theory of State Succession 367

Effect of Change of Sovereignty on Treaties 368

（a） Personal treaties 368

（b） Assignment of treaties 371

（c） Dispositive treaties 373

（d） Multilateral treaties 374

（e） Extension of treaties of the successor State to territory incor-porated in it 376

Effect of Change of Sovereignty on Acquired Rights 377

（a） The definition of “acquired rights” 377

（b） Protection of acquired rights and the doctrine of Act of State 378

（c） The extent of protection of acquired rights 379

12.STATE SUCCESSION——cont. 381

Effect of Change of Sovereignty on Contractual Obligations of the Predecessor State 381

（a） Subrogation， frustration， restitution 381

（b） Economic concessions 382

（c） Administrative contracts 383

Effect of Change of Sovereignty on the National Debt 383

（a） The national debt 384

（b） Localised debts 385

（c） Local debts 385

Effect of Change on Sovereignty on Delictual Claims 386

Effect of Change of Sovereignty on the Public Domain 387

Effect of Change of Sovereignty on the Legal and Judicial System 388

Effect of Change of Sovereignty on the Administration 390

Effect of Change of Sovereignty on the Nationality of the Inhabitants of Absorbed Territory 391

13.SUCCESSION OF GOVERNMENTS 394

14.SUCCESSION OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS 396

Part Six TERRITORY 403

15.TERRITORY 403

Relationship between Territory and Sovereignty 403

The Distinction between Imperium and Dominium： The Theory of Territory 403

Acquisition of Territory 405

The Problem of Characterisation of Sovereign Acts in the Acquisi-tion of Territory： Definition of Occupation， Prescription and Historic Rights 405

Modes of Acquisition 408

（a） Occupation 408

（Ⅰ） History of the doctrine： the value of discovery 408

（Ⅱ） The concept of effectiveness in occupation 409

（1） Acts necessary to prove sovereignty 409

（2） Relativity of probative value of sovereign acts to circumstances of particular territories 411

（3） Extent of title based on occupation 413

（4） The distinction between immediate occupation and occupation by consolidation 415

（5） The distinction between title by occupation and inchoate title 416

15.TERRITORY——cont. 417

Acquisition of Territory——cont. 417

Modes of Acquisition——cont. 417

（a） Occupation——cont. 417

（Ⅱ） The concept of effectiveness in occupation——cont. 417

（6） The Act of Berlin 1885 417

（7） Significance of unauthorised acts of private persons 417

（Ⅲ） The importance of the conception of contiguity 419

（b） Historic rights 421

（c） Prescription 422

（Ⅰ） The nature of prescriptive title 422

（Ⅱ） The conduct required of both parties to a prescriptive claim 423

（Ⅲ） The relevance of absence of protest 424

（Ⅳ） The doctrine of uti possidetis in South and Central America and the theory of constructive possession 426

（Ⅴ） Settlement of boundary disputes on the basis of treaty and conduct 427

（d） Accretion 428

（Ⅰ） Deltas and other natural appendages 428

（Ⅱ） Accretion， avulsion and the change of riverbed 429

（e） Annexation 431

（Ⅰ） Whether annexation is still a mode of acquisition in international law 431

（Ⅱ） The distinction between conquest and annexation 432

（Ⅲ） The forms of annexation 433

（Ⅳ） The conditions for annexation： premature annexation 435

（f） Cession 436

（Ⅰ） Modes of cession 436

（Ⅱ） The question of delivery 437

（Ⅲ） Jurisdictional authority up to the moment of delivery 438

（Ⅳ） Cession by native princes 440

（g） Debellatio 441

（Ⅰ） The Status of Germany after 1945 441

（Ⅱ） The Status of Berlin 1948- 442

Loss of Territory 443

Revolt and Secession 443

Dereliction 444

（a） Conversion to terra nullius 444

（b） Dereliction by treaty and the problem of succession to sovereignty 445

Polar Regions 448

The Arctic 448

Antarctica 450

16.MARITIME TERRITORY 454

The Territorial Sea 454

Historical Introduction 454

（a） The seventeenth century 455

（b） The eighteenth century 456

（c） The nineteenth century 457

（d） The Arbitrations 458

（e） The conferences on the territorial sea 459

The Extent of Coastal Claims 461

The Juridical Character of the Territorial Sea 467

（a） The theories on the subject 467

（Ⅰ） The territorial sea as an aggregation of jurisdictional rights 467

（Ⅱ） The territorial sea as a subject of sovereignty but out-side the national boundary 467

（Ⅲ） The territorial sea as a bundle of servitudes 468

（Ⅳ） The territorial sea as a subject of conservation rights 468

（Ⅴ） The territorial sea as part of the public domain 468

（b） The juridical character of the territorial sea in international law 469

（c） The juridical character of the territorial sea in municipal law 469

（Ⅰ） English law 470

（1） Judicial decisions on the extent of the realm 470

（2） The Territorial Waters Jurisdiction Act 1878 471

（3） The application of the decision in r.v.Keyn to Canada， India and Australia 472

（Ⅱ） The law of the United States： the Tidelands Dispute 473

（Ⅲ） Civil law systems 475

Measurement of the Territorial Sea 475

（a） The technique of measurement 475

（b） The boundary between two States 476

（c） The base for measurement 476

（d） Measurement from rocks and islands 480

（Ⅰ） What is an island？ 480

（Ⅱ） Islands within and outside the territorial sea 481

（Ⅲ） Artificial constructions 482

（Ⅳ） Archipelagos 482

The Distinction between the Territorial Sea and Internal Waters 483

Bays 484

The Problem of Dening a Bay in International Law 484

（a） The visual test 484

（b） The effective control test 486

（c） The geographical test 486

The Criterion of “Bay” in Constitutional Law： The Relation be-tween the Definition in Municipal Law and in International Law 488

16.MARITIME TERRITORY——cont. 490

Bays——cont. 490

The Supposed Criterion of Historic Bays 490

The Geographical Criterion in Modern International Law 493

（a） Pre-Geneva Conference 1958 493

（b） The criterion in the Final Act of the Geneva Conference 1958 494

Straits 495

What is a Strait？ 495

The Right of Innocent Passage through Straits 498

Actual Regimes of Straits 501

（a） Straits of Gibraltar 501

（b） Straits of Magellan 501

（c） The Danish Straits 501

（d） The Bosphorus and Dardanelles 501

The Continental Shelf 503

The History of the Topic 503

The Continental Shelf as a Geographical Phenomenon 504

Rights in Respect of the Continental Shelf 505

The Proclamations 505

The Extent of the Continental Shelf 509

Division of the Continental Shelf 511

（a） Opposite States 511

（b） Adjacent States 512

Continental Shelves of Islands 513

Legislation Respecting the Continental Shelf 513

（a） The United Kingdom Continental Shelf Act 1964 513

（b） The United States Territorial Waters and Continental Shelf Fishery Act 1964 514

The resources of the Continental Shelf 514

The Seabed of High Seas 515

17.AIRSPACE AND AIR LAW 518

Airspace 518

The Juridical Character of Airspace 518

Classification of Aircraft for the Purposes of Regulation 520

The Law Applicable to Aircraft in Flight 524

（a） The Tokyo Convention on Offences and certain Other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft 1963 525

（b） United Kingdom law 526

（c） United States law 527

The Chicago Convention 1944 527

The Warsaw Convention 1929 528

（a） International carriage 528

（b） Limitation of liability and the burden of proof 530

17.AIRSPACE AND AIR LAW——cont. 532

Airspace——cont. 532

The Warsaw Convention 1929——cont. 532

（c） Liability under Article 25 532

（d） The Guadalajara Convention supplementing the Warsaw Convention 1961 534

（e） Judicial jurisdiction under the Warsaw Convention 534

The Rome Convention on Damage Caused by Foreign Aircraft to Third Parties on the Surface 535

Outer Space 536

Application of the Chicago Convention to Space Bodies 539

Liability for Damage Caused by Space Vehicles 540

18.RIGHTS IN RESPECT OF FOREIGN TERRITORY 544

International Servitudes 544

The Terminology and Substance of “Servitude” 544

The Elements of a Servitude 547

Types of Servitudes 547

（a） Freedom of transit 547

（b） Economic use of waters 549

（c） Customs-free zones 549

（d） Fishery rights 550

（e） Demilitarised and neutralised areas 551

（f） Other localised rights 551

Customary Restraints on Sovereignty 552

The Significance of Analogous Instances 552

（a） Freedom of access and transit 552

（b） Access to enclaves 553

（c） Access to the sea 553

The Law Relating Generally to Transit 554

The Conditions of Access and Transit 555

International Rivers 556

Definition of an International River 556

Possible Legal Regimes of International Rivers 557

Control of Waters 558

（a） The Nile 560

（b） The Columbia River 561

（c） Middle East rivers 562

（d） International action on control of waters 562

（e） The principle of “equitable apportionment” 563

Navigation 565

（a） History of river internationalisation 565

（b） Whether there is a customary rule of freedom of navigation 567

（c） The Barcelona Convention 1921 569

18.RIGHTS IN RESPECT OF FOREIGN TERRITORY——cont. 570

International Rivers——cont. 570

Navigation——cont. 570

（d） Actual navigation rights on international rivers 570

（Ⅰ） European and African rivers 571

（1） The Rhine 571

（2） The Danube 572

（3） The Scheldt 574

（4） The Po 574

（5） The Vistula 574

（6） The Elbe， the Oder and the Niemen 575

（7） African rivers 575

（8） The Mekong 576

（Ⅱ） The rivers of the American Hemisphere 576

（1） The Mississippi 576

（2） The St.Lawrence 577

（3） The Alaskan rivers 578

（4） The St.John 578

（5） The Columbia 578

（6） The Colorado and the Rio Grande 578

（7） The Amazon. 578

（8） The Orinoco 579

（9） The Plate 579

The River as an International Boundary 579

Interoceanic Canals 580

The Process of Internationalisation 580

The Incidents of Internationalisation 581

（a） Merchant ships 582

（b） Warships 582

The Actual Regime of Canals 582

（a） Suez Canal 582

（Ⅰ） The Convention of 1888. 584

（Ⅱ） The practice since 1888 585

（b） Panama Canal 587

（c） Kiel Canal 589

International Law of Telecommunications 590

Obligations in Respect of Foreign Territory 591

The Standard of Care 591

River Pollution 593

Nuclear Damage 593

（a） The Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 1963 593

（b） Treaty liability for nuclear damage 594

（c） Treaty on non-proliferation of nuclear weapons 594

Part Seven JURISDICTION 599

19.THE THEORY OF JURISDICTION 599

20.MARITIME JURISDICTION 604

21.PERSONAL JURISDICTION： NATIONALITY 670

22.PERSONAL JURISDICTION： ALIENS 693

23.PERSONAL JURISDICTION： EXTRADITION AND ASYLUM 720

24.PERSONAL JURISDICTION： HUMAN RIGHTS 742

25.JURISDICTION WITH RESPECT TO ALIEN ACQUIRED RIGHTS 762

26.EXTENT OF OPERATION OF SOVEREIGN ACTS 794

Part Eight IMMUNITY FROM JURISDICTION 799

27.SOVEREIGN IMMUNITY 841

28.DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR PRIVILEGES AND IMMUNITIES 887

Part Nine STATE RESPONSIBILITY 941

29.THE THEORY OF STATE RESPONSIBILITY 941

30.STATE RESPONSIBILITY： THE TORT SITUATION 962

31.STATE RESPONSIBILITY： THE CONTRACT SITUATION 976

32.RESPONSIBILITY WITH RESPECT TO MONETARY SOVFREIGNTY 1011

Part Ten INTERNATIONAL LITIGATION 1029

33.THE CLAIM 1029

34.THE TRIBUNAL 1068

35.THE HEARING 1090

36.REPARATION FOR INTERNATIONAL WRONGS 1114

Tables and Indices 1127