1.Accountability 1
Early History of U.S.Policing and Accountability 2
Vollmer’s Framework of Leadership 3
Twentieth-Century Impacts on Accountability 4
External Sources of Police Misconduct 5
The Miranda Warning 6
Citizen Review Boards and Guilds 7
Internal Sources of Police Misconduct 8
Pro: Arguments in Favor of External Oversight 9
The Officer Shuffle 10
Officer Misconduct Database 10
Con: Arguments Against External Oversight 11
Legislative Changes 11
2.Arrest Practices 15
The Probable Cause Requirement 15
Observations Made by the Officer 16
Anonymous Sources With Unknown Reliability 17
Reliable Anonymous Sources 17
Arrest Warrants 17
Making an Arrest 17
Miranda Warnings 18
Investigative Detention and Arrest 20
The Terry Stop Case 21
Field Interviews Versus Consensual Encounters 21
Factors Defining a Field Interview 21
Initiation and Conduct of Field Interviews 22
Arrest and Prone Restraint 24
Arrests by Off-Duty Officers 24
Arresting Juveniles 25
Pro: Positive Aspects of the Arrest Function 26
Con: Limitations of the Arrest Function 26
Effects on the Suspect 27
3.Bounty Hunters and Rewards 29
The Judas Jigsaw 30
Good Samaritans 30
Frontier Vigilantes 31
Bail and Bounties 32
Police and Community Rewards 32
How Do the Police Feel About Rewards? 33
Notable Reward Cases 34
Crime Stoppers and Tax Whistleblowers 36
Targeting Terrorists 36
Pro: Arguments in Support of Bounties and Rewards 38
Con: Arguments Against Rewards and Bounties 38
4.Entrapment 41
Historical Origins 42
Legal Development in the Supreme Court 42
Subjective and Objective Approaches 44
The Groundbreaking Case of Jacobson v.United States 45
Entrapment Applied: Abscam 46
Pro: Support of Government Undercover Investigations 48
Con: Opposition of Broad Law Enforcement Discretion 49
Failure of the Subjective Test for Government Conduct 50
Unjustifiable Governmental Tactics 50
The Ethics of Deception 52
Conclusion 52
5.Internal Review Practices 55
Overview of Police Internal Review Practices 56
Public Complaints and Access 57
Maintaining Legitimacy 58
Four Possible Conclusions 60
Pro: Arguments in Favor of Internal Review Systems 61
Con: Arguments Against Internal Review Systems 62
6.Interrogation Practices 69
Overview 70
Early Judicial Decisions 70
The Changing Meaning of Voluntary Confession 71
The Christian Burial Case 72
Police Interrogation Tactics 73
Interrogation Environment 74
Interrogation Programs and Published Techniques 75
Pro: Benefits of Securing a Confession 76
Con: Drawbacks of Securing a Confession 77
Conclusion 78
Comprehension of a Suspect’s Rights 79
7.Miranda Warnings 83
Foundations of the Miranda Warnings 84
Repercussions of the Court Decision 85
Vacillations on Miranda 86
The Burger Court 86
The Rehnquist Court 88
Interpretation of the Warnings 88
When Miranda Is and Is Not Required 89
The Right to Silence Versus the Right to Counsel 91
Proper Use of Miranda and Suspect Voluntariness 91
Juvenile Suspects and Comprehension of Miranda 92
Pro: Arguments in Support of the Miranda Decision 93
Con: Arguments Against the Use of Miranda 94
Coercive Interrogation Tactics 95
8.Plain View Doctrine 97
The Fourth Amendment 98
Katz v.United States 99
The Coolidge Test 100
Covering the Five Senses 101
Sense-Augmenting Surveillance 102
Extrasensory Surveillance 105
Pro: Strengths of the Plain View Doctrine Compromise 107
Clear Guidance 107
Con: Limitations of the Plain View Doctrine 108
9.Police Brutality 111
Defining Police Brutality 112
Deadly Force 114
Non-Deadly Force 115
Prevalence of Police Use of Force and Brutality 116
Potential Causes of Police Brutality 117
Police Subculture 118
Biases Among Individual Officers 118
Burnout and Cynicism 119
Curbing Police Brutality 120
Civilian Review Boards 120
Early Warning Systems 121
Pro: Arguments Supporting Police Use of Heavy Force 122
Con: Arguments Against Permitting Police Brutality 123
Support of Research 124
10.Police Corruption and Code of Silence 129
Defining Police Corruption 130
Types of Police Corruption 130
The History of Police Corruption in America 131
The 1970s Knapp Commission: Meat Eaters and Grass Eaters 132
The 1990s and Beyond 132
Theories of Police Corruption 133
Preventing and Controlling Corruption 135
Positive Leadership 135
Administrative Rulemaking and Corruption Investigations 135
Community Policing 135
Code of Silence 136
Pro: Arguments in Favor of the Code of Silence 137
Con: Arguments Against the Code of Silence 139
Conclusion 140
11.Police Privatization 143
Politics, Privatization, and Policing 144
Historical Fluctuations of Private Policing in America 144
Organizational Design of Public Policing 146
Public-Choice and Interorganizational Theories 146
Public-Interest, Economic, and Management Dimensions 147
Pro: Arguments in Support of Police Privatization 148
Reducing Costs and Gaining Efficiency 148
Competitive Pressures Beneficial to Democracy 149
Con: Arguments in Opposition to Police Privatization 150
Profit Motivations, Ethics, and Accountability 151
Use of Force, Violations of Human Rights, and Social Control 152
Quality and Costs of Services 152
Legality 153
Looking Forward 154
12.Police Strikes and Blue Flu 157
Early History of Police Strikes 158
Modern History of Police Strikes 159
The Legality of Police Strikes 161
Pro: Arguments in Favor of the Right of Police to Strike 162
Citizen Opinion 163
Con: Arguments Against Police Strikes 164
Collective Bargaining and Binding Arbitration 164
Community Support 166
Altering Enforcement Strategies 166
13.Profiling 171
The Rise of Sundown Towns 173
The White Supremacy-Racial Profiling Nexus 175
Social Consequences 175
“Out-of-Place” Policing 176
Traffic Encounters 176
Pro: Arguments in Favor of Profiling Research 177
Con: Research on Racial Profiling Is Insufficient 178
14.Riot and Demonstration Responses 183
Overview of Riots and Demonstrations 184
Demonstrations and Protests 184
Police Riots 185
The Social Underpinnings of Demonstrations and Riots 187
Examples of Policing Demonstrations 188
Social and Political Demonstrations and Clashes 189
Calls for Reform 190
Practices of Policing Demonstrations 191
Containing Space 192
Riot Control Measures 191
Recent Transformations 192
Pro: Arguments in Favor of Policing Demonstrations 193
Con: Arguments Against Policing Demonstrations 195
15.Use of Deadly Force 199
The History of Policy Governing Use of Deadly Force 200
From Fleeing Felon to Defense of Life Rule 200
The Force Continuum 201
Frequency of Deadly Force 203
Studies Show Use of Deadly Force Is Rare 204
Determinants of Deadly Force: Four Perspectives 205
Situational Explanations 206
Officer Behavior 206
Organizational Explanations 207
It’s the Neighborhood 207
Pro: Arguments Supporting the Use of Deadly Force 207
Con: Arguments Against the Use of Deadly Force 208
16.Vehicle Searches 213
History of Vehicle Searches 214
Search Tools Available to the Police 215
Incident to Arrest 217
Arizona v.Gant 218
Vehicle Searches and the War on Drugs 219
Whren v.United States 220
Pro: Arguments in Favor of Gant’s Search Limits 221
Con: Arguments Against Gant’s Search Limits 222
Conclusion 223
17.Vehicular Police Pursuits 225
Brief History of Police Pursuits 226
Legal Challenges to Pursuits 226
Significant Cases Shaping Emergency Vehicle Operation 227
Owing Duty and Safe Operation 228
Conditions Acceptable for Pursuit 230
Pursuit Scholarship 231
Pursuit Management Task Force Study 231
International Association of Chiefs of Police Report 233
Pursuit Policy Development 234
Three Policy Scenarios 234
Public Relations and Communication 235
Pro: Arguments in Support of Vehicular Police Pursuits 236
Con: Arguments Opposing Vehicular Police Pursuit 236
18.Vigilantes 239
Vigilante Beginnings 240
Modern Vigilante Groups 240
Vigilante Precursors: Kin-Based Order and Early Justice 241
Historical Vigilantism in the United States 243
Vigilantes in the 1800s 244
Justice, Southern Style 246
Contemporary Vigilante Movements and Impulses 247
Internet And Cyber Vigilantes 248
Media and Entrapment Controversies 249
Vigilantes in Popular Media 250
Western Films and the Golden Age of Television 251
Vigilantes in Contemporary Entertainment 252
Pro: Support for Vigilantism 252
Con: Opposition to Vigilantism 253
19.Warrants 255
The History of Warrants 257
The Legality of Warrants 258
When a Warrant Is Not Necessary 259
The Plain View Doctrine 260
Warrant Requirement Exemption for Vehicles 261
Pro: Arguments in Favor of Warrants 263
Con: Arguments Against Requiring a Warrant 264
20.Zero-Tolerance Policing 269
Definition and Varieties 270
Origin and History 271
Broken Windows and Hot Spots 271
Origins in the War on Drugs 272
Theoretical Grounding 273
Purpose and Outcomes 274
Practices and Institutional Settings 274
Pro: Arguments in Favor of Zero-Tolerance Policing 275
Con: Arguments Against Zero-Tolerance Policing 276
Discriminatory Practices 277
Index 281
About the General Editor 320