PART ONE INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL SCIENCE 19
CHAPTER 1 Introduction(Katharine Densford Dreves,RN,BA,MA,DSc,LLD) 21
Reactions of students to the course in chemistry 21
Recommended method of study 21
Definitions 22
Why do we study chemistry? 22
Word regarding the author 24
CHAPTER 2 Metric system 26
Centigrade temperature scale 26
Units of length 26
Units of weight 26
Units of volume 29
Study questions 29
CHAPTER 3 Chemical substances 30
Physical and chemical changes 30
Simple and compound substances 31
Elements and compounds 31
Factors influencing the activities of substances 32
Factors affecting the speed of chemical reactions 33
Study questions 34
CHAPTER 4 Atoms and molecules 35
Atomic theory 35
Atomic weight 35
Atomic numbers 35
Molecules 36
Molecular weight 36
Subatomic particles 37
Supposed structure of the atom 37
Isotopes 40
Van der Waals forces 42
Study questions 42
CHAPTER 5 Chemical shorthand and the concept of valence 43
Atomic symbol 43
Formula for the compound 43
Concept of valence 45
Structural formula 46
Chemical equation 46
Radicals 49
Prediction of the products of reaction 50
Relationship between valence and atomic structure 51
Study questions 52
CHAPTER 6 Oxygen 53
Occurrence 53
Discovery of oxygen 53
Preparation 53
Properties 54
Vital importance 55
Burning 55
Kindling temperature 55
Extinguishing fires 55
Importance of oxygen gas in everyday life 56
Commercial uses of oxygen 57
Use of oxygen in therapy 57
Problem of the rusting of iron 58
Oxides 58
Study questions 58
CHAPTER 7 Energy transformations 60
Definition 60
Energy conversions 60
Measurement of energy 60
Chemical energy 61
Energy production from foods 61
Study questions 62
CHAPTER 8 Water 63
Composition 63
Occurrence 63
Physical properties of biological importance 63
Reaction with metals 64
Reaction with oxides 65
Hydrates 65
Hydrolysis 66
Study questions 66
CHAPTER 9 Solutions 68
Meaning of the termsolution 68
Solvent and solute 68
Solutions with liquid solvents 68
Factors influencing solubility 68
Types of solution 69
Freezing and boiling points of solutions 69
Methods of expressing concentration 69
Surface tension 71
Interfacial tension 72
Surface active substances 72
Emulsions 72
Osmotic pressure 74
Colloidal dispersions 75
Dialysis 76
Colloid osmotic pressure 76
Adsorption 77
Chromatography 78
Study questions 78
CHAPTER 10 Acids,bases,and salts 80
Inorganic and organic compounds 80
Definitions 80
Indicators 80
Acids 81
General properties of acids 81
Physical properties of acids 84
Rules for naming acids 84
Bases 85
General properties of bases 85
Physical properties of baser 86
Rule for naming bases 86
Salts 87
General properties of salts 87
Salts responsible for hard water 88
Acid salts 89
Rules for naming salts 89
Study questions 91
CHAPTER 11 Ionization 92
Electrolytes and non-electrolytes 92
Strong and weak electrolytes 92
Osmotic pressure of electrolytes 92
Theory of ionization 94
Electrovalence and the nature of ions 95
Covalence 95
Conduction of an electric current by electrolyte solutions 99
Acids and bases in water solution 99
Salts in water solution 100
Physiological importance of ions 101
Equilibrium in electrolyte solutions 101
Water as an electrolyte 102
pH notation 103
Importance of pH control 104
Buffers 105
Study questions 106
CHAPTER 12 Oxidation and reduction 107
Oxidation-reduction reactions 107
Metathetic reactions 107
Electron transfers in oxidation-reduction reactions 107
Oxidizing and reducing agents 108
Importance of oxidation-reduction reactions in medicine 109
Study questions 111
CHAPTER 13 Periodic table and some important elements 112
Periodicity of the elements 112
Modern periodic table 113
Hydrogen 113
Alkali metals 115
Alkaline-earth metals 115
Boron and aluminum 116
Silicon,tin,and lead 116
Nitrogen,phosphorus,arsenic,antimony,and bismuth 118
Sulfur 119
Halogens 120
Noble gases 121
Copper,silver,and gold 121
Zinc and mercury 122
Iron 124
Precious stones 124
Study questions 124
CHAPTER 14 Nuclear chemistry and atomic energy 126
Introduction 126
Natural radioactivity 126
Bombardment with charged particles 127
Bombardment with neutrons 130
Atomic energy 130
Nuclear fusion 132
Use of radioactive elements as tracers 132
Study questions 136
CHAPTER 15 Introduction to organic chemistry 137
Introduction 137
Sources of organic compounds 138
Importance of organic substances 138
Comparison of organic and inorganic reactions 138
Carbon as an element 138
Important properties of the carbon atom 139
Use of structural formulas in organic chemistry 140
Saturated and unsaturated compounds 142
Characteristic groups 142
Divisions of organic compounds 143
Study questions 144
CHAPTER 16 Aliphatic organic compounds 145
Hydrocarbons 145
Saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons 145
Unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons 149
Reaction of hydrocarbons with oxygen 150
Reaction of hydrocarbons with halogens 150
Hydrocarbon radicals 152
Alcohols 152
Definition 152
Types of alcohol 153
Comparison of alcohols and inorganic hydroxides 153
Reactions with oxygen 154
Some important alcohols 154
Aldehydes and ketones 156
Definitions 156
Reactions 157
Important aldehydes 157
Important ketones 158
Organic acids and salts 158
Definitions and properties 158
Typical organic acids 159
Esters 160
Definition and properties 160
Important esters 163
Ethers 163
Amines 164
Study questions 166
CHAPTER 17 Isomerism of organic compounds 168
Introduction 168
Chain or nuclear isomerism 168
Geometric or cis-trans isomerism 168
Tautomerism or dynamic isomerism 170
Position isomerism 170
Optical isomerism 171
Summary 175
Study questions 175
CHAPTER 18 Cyclic organic compounds 176
Cycloparaffins or naphthenes 176
Aromatic compounds 177
Aromatic hydrocarbons 177
Benzene 177
Structure of benzene 177
Properties of benzene 181
Other important aromatic hydrocarbons 182
Oxygen derivatives of the aromatic hydrocarbons 184
Aromatic alcohols 184
Benzyl alcohol 184
Phenethyl alcohol 184
Phenols 185
Naphthols 188
Alkylated phenols 188
Aromatic aldehydes 189
Benzaldehyde 189
Aromatic ketones 190
Benzophenone 190
Acetophenone 191
Chloracetophenone 191
Quinones 191
Aromatic acids 191
Benzoic acid 192
Salicylic acid 192
Aromatic amines 193
Primary aromatic amines 193
Aniline 193
Secondary aromatic amines 195
Tertiary aromatic amines 195
Dyes 195
Heterocyclic compounds 197
Heterocyclic compounds with five-membered rings 198
Furane 198
Thiophene 198
Thiazole 198
Pyrrole 198
Imidazole 199
Heterocyclic compounds with six-membered rings 199
Pyridine 199
Heterocyclic compounds with condensed rings 200
Indole 200
Quinoline 201
Other heterocyclic compounds 201
Ureides 201
Pyrimidines 202
Purines 203
Alkaloids 203
Study questions 205
PART TWO PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PATHOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY 207
CHAPTER 19 Nature of enzymes 209
Definitions 209
Chemical nature of enzymes 209
Speed of enzyme action 209
Enzyme specificity 210
Proenzymes 210
Activators and inhibitors 210
Coenzymes 211
Types of reaction catalyzed by enzymes 211
Autolysis 214
Diseases of enzymic defect 214
Mechanism of drug action 214
Study questions 217
CHAPTER 20 Chemical nature of lipids 218
Definition of lipid 218
Types of lipid 218
Types of fatty acid 219
Soaps 220
Chemical nature of fats 222
Oils 223
Hydrogenation of fats 223
Acrolein test 223
Rancidity of fats 224
Phospholipids 224
Glycolipids 225
Waxes 225
Sterols 226
Study questions 227
CHAPTER 21 Metabolism of lipids 228
Definition of metabolism 228
Summary of fat digestion 228
Anabolic products of fatty adds 229
Functions of depot fat 229
Catabolism of fatty adds 230
Ketone bodies 233
Causes of ketosis 234
Function of the liver in fatty add catabolism 234
Question of conversion of fat to carbohydrate 235
Functions of phospholipids 235
Sterol metabolism 236
Obesity 239
Study questions 241
CHAPTER 22 Chemical nature of carbohydrates 243
Definitions 243
Types of carbohydrate 243
Hexoses 243
Fermentation 246
Pentoses 246
Disaccharides 247
Some important polysaccharides 248
Glucosides 250
Origin of carbohydrates 250
Study questions 251
CHAPTER 23 Metabolism of carbohydrates 252
Summary of carbohydrate digestion 252
Fate of fructose and galactose 252
Glycogen formation 253
Glycogenolysis 254
Blood sugar level 254
Chemical changes in muscle contraction 254
Metabolism of nerve tissue 258
Conversion of carbohydrate to fat 258
Energy of carbohydrate oxidation 258
Protein-sparing action of carbohydrate 259
Action of epinephrine 259
Functions of insulin 259
Glucagon 262
Study questions 264
CHAPTER 24 Chemical nature of proteins 265
Introduction 265
Types of protein 265
Isoelectric point 266
Amino acids 268
Methods of making proteins insoluble 272
Protein solvents 273
Color reactions of proteins 274
Hemoglobin 274
Methemoglobin 275
Carbon monoxide poisoning 275
Nucleoproteins 275
Study questions 282
CHAPTER 25 Metabolism of proteins 283
Summary of protein digestion 283
Anabolic products of amino acids 283
Essential amino acids 283
Amino acid catabolism 284
Fate of urea 284
Formation of ammonium salts by the kidneys 284
Ammonium salts in blood 285
Energy of protein catabolism 285
Purine metabolism 285
Pyrimidine metabolism 286
Creatine and creatinine 287
Anabolism of hemoglobin 288
Catabolism of hemoglobin 288
Special transformations of certain amino acids in the body 291
Glycine 291
Cystine 291
Tyrosine 291
Histidine 292
Methionine 292
Metabolic interrelationships 294
Study questions 295
CHAPTER 26 Chemistry of the digestive tract 297
Introduction 297
Teeth 297
Saliva 300
Gastric juice 300
Secretin 304
Pancreatic juice 305
Bile 306
Intestinal juice 308
Enterogastrone 309
Bacterial action in the intestine 309
Feces 310
Study questions 311
CHAPTER 27 Inorganic metabolism 313
Water 313
Sodium bicarbonate 315
Sodium chloride 316
Calcium 316
Phosphorus 318
Potassium 318
Iron 319
Iodine 320
Fluorine 320
Stimulating and depressing ions 321
Study questions 321
CHAPTER 28 Blood 323
Introduction 323
Transport of oxygen to the tissues 327
Transport of carbon dioxide to the lungs 328
Acid-base balance 329
Plasma proteins 331
Blood clotting 335
Nonprotein nitrogen 339
Blood sugar level 340
Plasma lipids 340
Some important inorganic components 341
Study questions 342
CHAPTER 29 Urine 344
Introduction 344
Formation of urine 344
Collection of urine for analysis 345
Volume of urine 346
Color of urine 347
Specific gravity of urine 347
Reaction of urine 348
Composition of urine 348
Abnormal components of urine 348
Urine sediment 350
Study questions 355
CHAPTER 30 Hormones 356
Introduction 356
Hormones of the ovary 356
Hormones of the testis 363
Hormone of the thyroid gland 365
Hormone of the parathyroid glands 369
Hormones of the adrenal glands 371
Hormone of the pancreas 378
Hormones of the pituitary gland 380
Miscellaneous postulated factors 384
General adaptation syndrome 389
Hormones of the digestive tract 391
Antihormones 392
Renin mechanism 392
Study questions 393
CHAPTER 31 Vitamins 395
Introduction 395
Vitamin A 396
Provitamins 396
Chemical nature of vitamin A 396
Vitamin A deficiency 396
Storage of vitamin A in the body 399
Absorption of vitamin A 400
Standardization and requirements of vitamin A 400
Sources of vitamin A 400
Vitamin B complex 401
Thiamin(vitamin B1) 401
Chemical nature of thiamin 401
Thiamin deficiency 402
Thiamin pyrophosphate as a coenzyme 405
Absorption and storage of thiamin 405
Requirements of thiamin 407
Sources of thiamin 407
Riboflavin 407
Chemical nature of riboflavin 407
Relation to the yellow enzyme 407
Riboflavin in nutrition 407
Suggested requirements of riboflavin 408
Nicotinic acid and nicotinic acid amide 408
Role in cell oxidations 408
Pellagra 409
Vitamin B12(cyanocobalamin) 411
Folic acid complex 412
Pyridoxine 414
Pantothenic acid 415
Choline 416
Biotin 417
Inositol 418
Ascorbic acid(vitamin C) 418
Chemical nature of ascorbic acid 418
Deficiency of ascorbic acid 419
Ascorbic acid deficiency in animals 421
Requirements of ascorbic acid 421
Food sources of ascorbic acid 422
Citrin(vitamin P) 422
Vitamin D 423
Chemical nature of vitamin D 423
Supposed function of vitamin D 424
Deficiency of vitamin D 424
Hypervitaminosis D 427
Standardization and requirements of vitamin D 427
Sources of vitamin D 427
Vitamin E 427
Chemical nature of vitamin E 427
Deficiency in rats 428
Deficiency in other animals 428
Possible role in human nutrition 429
Sources of vitamin E 429
Vitamin K 429
Chemical nature of vitamin K 429
Function of vitamin K 430
Use of vitamin K in human pathology 430
Sources of vitamin K 431
Study questions 431
CHAPTER 32 Introduction to nutrition 433
Introduction 433
Basal metabolism 434
Energy requirement 435
Protein requirement 438
Mineral(inorganic) requirement 440
Lipid requirement 442
Acid and alkaline effects of foods 443
Ketogenic and antiketogenic diets 443
Residue and water in the diet 443
Diet in pregnancy and lactation 444
Nutrition in infancy and childhood 444
Reducing diets 447
Study questions 452
Appendix 453
International atomic weights 453
Antibiotics 454
Precious stones 456
Some agents used in chemical warfare 461
Common organic radicals 464
Amino acids commonly found in proteins 466